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Genetics and organic evolution Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are the characteristics of a eukaryotic cell (animal)?

A
  • nucleus present
  • chromosome is in nucleic acid and covers covered in protein
  • has chloroplast
  • has mitochondria,Golgi bodies and E.R
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2
Q

What is a gene ?

A

A fundamental physical ad functional unit of heredity that carries info from one generation to next

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3
Q

A gene segment can?

A
  1. Transcribe
  2. regulate hormone+vitamin production
  3. Regulate surface absorption in cells
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4
Q

What are purines?

A

Double ringed nitrogen bases , they are adenine and guanine

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5
Q

What are Pyrimidines?

A

Single ringed nitrogen bases, they are thymine and cytosine

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6
Q

What is the backbone of a polypeptide chain?

A

The phosphate sugar group

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7
Q

What links the 3’ and 5’ carbon atoms of neighbouring sugars ?

A

As phosphodiester

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8
Q

A DNA molecule is made up of what ?

A
  1. A nitrogenous base
  2. a phosphate base
  3. a pentose sugar/deoxyribose
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9
Q

A sequence of 3 bases in a single strand of DNA is called?

A

Triplets

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10
Q

What are the Characteristics of a prokaryotic cell(plant)?

A
  • no nucleus but has nuclear material
  • no nuclear membrane
  • chromosome is onto nucleic acid
  • has chlorophyll but no plastids
  • no mitochondria,Golgi bodies/E.R
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11
Q

What does the enzyme ‘helicase’ do ?

A

Unwinds original parent strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds between base pairs

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12
Q

What does the enzyme “gyrase” do ?

A

Releases tension in strands

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13
Q

What does the enzyme DNA polymerase do ?

A

Only join phosphate group at 5’ carbon of new nucleotide to the hydroxyl group of the 3’ carbon of old nucleotide in chain

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14
Q

How is DNA synthesised ?

A

In a 5’ to 3’ direction while copying a parent strand from a 3’ to 5’ direction

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15
Q

What is the operon ?

A

Is a portion of DNA molecule where information required to regulate timing of action is contained

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16
Q

Who first proposed the operon theory how ?

A

Jacob N Monad explained how genes can be turned off and on in response to the needs of the cell and was done on bacteria

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17
Q

What is an operon made up of ?

A

Consists of 3 groups of closely linked genes that act together and code for various enzymes that control a particular pathway

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18
Q

What is the regulator gene ?

A

It is a gene that produces a repressor molecule

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19
Q

What is the promotor in the operon ?

A

Controls the transcription process by initiating of the formation of mRNA

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20
Q

What is the operator in the operon ?

A

Helps to control the action of the structural gene

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21
Q

What is the structural gene ?

A

Contains information on the formation of enzymes ad are transcribed as single transcription units

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22
Q

How to turn off the operon

A

Regulator gene produced a substance known as a repressor which bind to the operator making it impossible for the RNA polymerase from starting the transcription process from structural gene

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23
Q

To switch on operon

A

Operator gene will do its work of intimating transcription when repressor not present . Repressor will not bind if prevented by another chemical

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24
Q

What is transcription ?

A

It is the decoding of information from DNA onto mRNA

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25
Q

What are the 3 gene regions of a gene ?

A
  1. The promotor
  2. The coding region
  3. The terminator sequence
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26
Q

What is splicing ?

A

The removal of introns(non coding portions of the message) from the primary strand

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27
Q

What is translation ?

A

Is the change of form of a base order of RNA into a peptide bond

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28
Q

What is proteins function ?

A

For catalytic activity and structure forming

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29
Q

What is mutation ?

A

It is the change of genetic structure due to outside or internal effects

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30
Q

Differentiate between gametic cells and somatic cells.

A

Gametic cells have information that can be passed onto the next generation whereas somatic cells are body cells so cannot be carried onto offsprings

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31
Q

Why is point mutation ?

A

When there is a change In a single base along the DNA molecule.

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32
Q

What is crossing-over ?

A

The exchange of information when non sister chromatids tangle their arms

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33
Q

Points at which inter-twining occurs are called?

A

Chiasma

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34
Q

Differentiate between cystic fibrosis an sickle cell disease .(a harmful mutation)

A

Sickle cell mutation involves a change to only a base in a DNA. Sequence, whereas cystic fibrosis involves the lost of a single triplet

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35
Q

What is albinism ?

A

Mutation in the gene producing an enzyme in the metabolic pathway to melanin

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36
Q

Give An example of a beneficial mutation

A

Tolerance To high cholesterol levels in humans in a village of limone. The mutation alters a protein by one amino acid making it withstand excess cholesterol .

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37
Q

What are mutagens ?

A

Chemicals or radiation that cause mutation .

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38
Q

What are the four main classes of mutagens?

A
  1. Ionising radiation
  2. Viruses and microorganisms .
  3. Alcohol and dietary components
  4. Environmental poisons and irritants
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39
Q

Effects of mutation

A

Add,delete or rearrange genetic material .

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40
Q

What Is chimera ?

A

An organism with a mixture of genetically different cells due
to a mutation in body cell beyond zygote stage

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41
Q

Difference between gametic mutation and somatic mutation

A

Gametic mutation can be inherited and occurs in the tested and ovary whereas the somatic cells occur in body cells and aren’t inherited but affects the person during lifetime

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42
Q

What is point mutation ?

A

A change in a single nucleotide or changes to a triplet

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43
Q

What is aneuploidy ?

A

Change in chromosome number in an organism or cel. A failure to separate and can be sex chromosomes or an autosome .

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44
Q

What is non-disjunction ?

A

Process where cells fail to separate due to meiosis 1

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45
Q

What is turners syndrome (X0) ?

A

An N-1 gamete is fertilised by a normal gamete resulting in a zygote with two N-1 chromosome (45). Known as MONOSONIC. Female,short,sterile, slow learner. 1/1500 an have

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46
Q

What is kleinfleters syndrome(XXY)?

A

Fertilisation between an (XX or X) egg and a (Y OR XY) sperm(47). Male, femaleness secondary characteristics, limbs longer then average, penis and testis under developed . Known as. Tri-sonic. 1/1000 have .

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47
Q

What is Down syndrome(trisomy 21) ?

A

Failure to separate the pair of chromosome 21 in the egg . Have abnormal ears,slanting eyes,short skull,long tongue and low intelligence

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48
Q

What is polyploidy ?

A

Is the multiple copies of extra whole set of chromosome(xsome).

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49
Q

What is auto polyploidy ?

A

Is the multiplication of the entire genome within a single species because of chromosomes failing to separate during cell division.

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50
Q

What is allo polyploidy?

A

Involved the combination Of chromosomes from 2/more species producing a sterile hybrid .

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51
Q

What is natural selection ?

A

Is the differential fertility in Nature favouring individuals that are better adapted to the environment .

52
Q

What is stabilisation selection ?

A

The elimination of both extreme phenotypes and stabilising the composition of the gene pool thus decreasing genetic diversity

53
Q

What is directional selection ?

A

The favouring of one extreme phenotype over average and other extreme phenotype. Occurs when the environment is changing steadily in a particular direction leading to evolution .

54
Q

What is disruptive selection ?

A

The favouring of both the extreme phenotypes over average, and separating a single population into 2 sub population. This increase genetic variation

55
Q

What is speciation ?

A

The rise of new species from an existing one where the two cannot interbreed due to gene exchange being impossible

56
Q

What is a ‘race’?

A

A population which differ from each other that is easy observed by the characteristics .

57
Q

Where Are GMOs applied ?

A
  • Shelf life extension
  • pest/herbicide resistance
  • crop improvement
  • environmental clean-up
  • bio factories
  • vaccine development
  • livestock improvement using transgenic animals
58
Q

What is meiosis ?

A

Is a special type of cell division concerned with producing sex cell for the purpose of sexual reproduction .
Daughter cells have half of info of parent cell.

59
Q

What is mitosis ?

A

It is the replication of parent cell to produce two daughter cells identical to parent cell .

60
Q

What is synapsis?

A

The pairing up of two sister chromatids to form bivalents

61
Q

What is chiasma ?

A

The point where chromatids have crossed

62
Q

What is recombination ?

A

The arising of new gene combinations from crossing over

63
Q

What are GMOs ?

A

Are Organisms with artificially altered DNA . It can modified by:
addition
Alternation
Deletion

64
Q

What is transgenic ?

A

The insertion of a foreign gene from another species to express that taut coded by the new gene

65
Q

What is micropropagation/plant tissue culture ?

A

Method used in cloning plants

66
Q

Micropropagation adavatages

A
  • Used in Recovery programmes for endangered plants
  • improvement of plant productivity+quality
  • resistant to disease, pollutants ad insects
67
Q

Micropropagation disadvantages

A
  • reduction in genetic variation
  • labour intensive
  • need optimal conditions for growth and regeneration
68
Q

What are explants ?

A

Small pieces from plants

69
Q

What is a callus ?

A

An undifferentiated mass of cells.

70
Q

What is gene cloning ?

A

A process of making large quantities of desired piece of DNA once it had been isolated .
-purpose to yield large quantities of either an individual gene

71
Q

What is a molecular clone ?

A

The insertion of DNA fragment of interest into a DNA of a vector

72
Q

What is a genetic marker ?

A

A part that allows them to e easily identified

73
Q

What are epistatic genes/supplementary ?

A

Are genes that mask the effect of other genes

74
Q

Define organic evolution

A

The total Change in the characteristics of population , occurring over many generations

75
Q

What are coacervate droplets?

A

A cluster of macromolecules surrounded by a shell of water molecules

76
Q

Who proved spontaneous generation false ?

A

Louis Pasteur

77
Q

Who propose the heterotroph hypothesis ? And who proved it ?

A

Oparin and was proved by stab miller

78
Q

What are viruses ?

A

They are a sub-cellular d life . That has to reproduce by a host and can crystallise.

79
Q

What are the three stages of a virus ?

A

Virion
Provirus
Vegatative

80
Q

What is a Virion ?

A

It is the fee particle stage where the virus is ready to invade a cell

81
Q

What is a provirus ?

A

It is the incorporation of viral nucleus acid into the chromosome

82
Q

What is the vegetative virus ?

A

It is the replication of viral nucleus acid inside a host cell using the hosts raw materials and metabolic machinery.

83
Q

What are bacteriophages ?

A

They are virus that attach ad destroy bacteria

84
Q

What is the lyric cycle ?

A

It is the attachment, incorporation and replication of viral nucleic acid and release of new phage viruses by lyses or extrusion

85
Q

What is extrusion ?

A

The envelopment of viruses into the hosts membrane and the pushing out of the host cell

86
Q

What is the lysogenic cycle ?

A

Same process as lytic cycle but the bacteria does not burst however it just replicates the viral DNA until they are exposed to UV or chemicals

87
Q

Importance of viruses

A

Causes diseases-chicken pox, HIV.

Used as biological control

88
Q

What are the characteristics of a proaryotic cell ?

A
  • No nuclear membrane
  • Only one circular chromosome
  • may have chlorophyll no chloroplast
  • no internal organelles
  • flagella present in some cells
  • no cytoplasmic streaming
  • cell wall contains muramic acid
89
Q

Wha are bacteria ?

A

Are procaryotic organisms belonging to Kindom monera which has DNA & RNA.

90
Q

What are the various shapes of bacteria ?

A 
Cocci
Bacillu
Spirilla
Bacterial clusters & chains 
Filament
91
Q

What are he endoscopes present in bacteria ?

A

Allows bacteria to survive harsh conditions

92
Q

Many bacteria reproduce asexually through binary fussion, what is binary fussion ?

A

It is the splitting of the parent cell into two new cells . Mitosis in single celled organisms

93
Q

What is conjugation ?

A

It is the fussion of two bacterial cell membranes by laying side by side and exchanging genetic material Through the cytoplasmic bridge

94
Q

What is transformation ?

A

It is the bacterial cell receiving DNA fragments that have entered the bacterial cell env from dead cells .

95
Q

What is transduction ?

A

The transportation of DNA from one bacterial cells into another by viruses

96
Q

How does genetic recombination take place in bacteria ?

A

Conjugation
Transformation
Transduction

97
Q

Ecological importance of bacteria ?

A 
Aid in nitrogen cycle
Decompose material 
Control populations
Assist in antibiotic production 
Help in producing bread and yogurt
98
Q

Blue-green algae structure

A
  • Have all pigments
  • Chlorophyll packed in vesicles called chromatophores
  • cell wall made up of muramic acid
  • Either rod or spherical
  • independent or colonel smt filament
99
Q

Sponges (phylum polifera)

A

Sessile aquatic organisms
Live single or in colonies
Opening is osculum collar cells have flagella cause water current
Skeleton-spicules
Amoeboid cells digest & distribute food

100
Q

What are diploblastic conditions ?

A

Body made up of two cellular layers only-(endo & ecto- primary/ germ later )
Non cellular layers exist between both called meosglea.
Porifera & coelenterates exhibit this

101
Q

What are coelenterates/cnidarians?

A

Cells showing specialisation and division of labour

102
Q

What are tribloblastic conditions ?

A

Body made up of three cellular layers hat are laid down in the embryo itself
-all meta pans except cnidarians are This

103
Q

What is the blastocoel?

A

It is the inner cavity of the hollow sphere

104
Q

What is the blastula ?

A

It is the cell arrangement into hollow sphere due to continuous cleavage

105
Q

What is the morula ?

A

It is the formation of a cluster of cells from rapid mitotic division

106
Q

The cells on one side of the sphere that are larger are called ?

A

The vegetal hemisphere

107
Q

The side of the sphere that has smaller cells are called ?

A

The animal hemisphere

108
Q

What is the gastrula ?

A

It is a structure for me after cell movement occuring after blastula formation

109
Q

What is the archenteron ?

A

A new cavity that forms after the invaginate cell layer is pushed right in against the outer layer

110
Q

What are protostomes?

A

Blastocoel forms mouth
New opening Anus
Ex-earthworm

111
Q

What are Deutrostomes ?

A

The blastocoel forms Anus
The new opening is the mouth
Ex-chordates higher animals

112
Q

What is the neurula?

A

The name of the Embryo when the nervous system starts to develop

113
Q

What are analogous structures ?

A

Are different structures that serve same function . Have no close evolutionary relationship .

114
Q

What are homologous structures ?

A

Same structures that serve different functions

115
Q

What is a fossile record ?

A

Preserved remains and imprints that reveal past biological events

116
Q

Define morphogenic movement

A

Movement of masses of cells to different positions gives shape and form to the developing embryo

117
Q

What is cellular differentiation ?

A

Process of cell specialisation and hence division labour

118
Q

What is a colony and why it is not truly considered as multicellular ?

A

It is a loose association of cells and not considered multicellular bey as each is independent and has to look after all it’s physiological needs

119
Q

What is a cistron?

A

A length of DNA that specifics one polypeptide chain in Protein synthesis

120
Q

What are chromatophores ?

A

Resides that contain chlorophyll in blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria )

121
Q

State The hardy Weinberg equilibrium principle

A

At equilibrium , both allele ad genotype frequency remain costs by from generation to generation

122
Q

What is a vector ?

A

DNA that serves a s a carrier for a gene. Which Is incorporated into it

123
Q

What are plasmids ?

A

Autonomous replicating extra-chromosomal DNA molecule found in bacteria

124
Q

Define epistasis and dominance

A

Epistasis- interaction between different genes )non-allele(

Dominance-result of interaction between two different alleles of the same gene

125
Q

What is ligation ?

A

Is a process of reassembling DNA fragments produced by the use of restriction enzymes . Pieces joined together by DNA ligase.
DNA produced this way called recombinant DNA

126
Q

What are sticky ends ?

A

Ends with exposed nucleotide bases at each end .

127
Q

What is annealing ?

A

The jointing of two matching sticky ends by base pairing

vet science and animal husbandry (6 decks)

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