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BIO 101 Exam 2 > Genetics > Flashcards

Genetics Flashcards

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1
Q

Every living thing is organized via coded information called

A

Genetic material

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2
Q

Reproduction involves

A

Duplication and transmission of an organisms genetic material.

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3
Q

What is a gene?

A

A gene is an information entity. It is a sequence of DNA that codes for a single genetic instruction.
(Usually, this instruction is the sequence of a protein, but a gene may also serve to activate or deactivate other genes, in a cell or in neighboring cells.)

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4
Q

What is every aspect of our species based on?

A
  • Information in genes
  • Though the genes themselves do very little. It is the cytological machinery of our cells, passed from one generation to the next, that translate these instructions into living things.
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5
Q

The effects of every gene depend both on

A

other genes and the environment.

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6
Q

What is an allele?

A

ONE variation of a gene. Many genes have two, several or many different variants of the same basic genetic information.

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7
Q

What affect can alleles have on an organism?

A

Some are minor differences, while others can cause profound changes.

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8
Q

Nucleotide substitutions in the third codon position often produces no change at all. Why?

A

Because they code for the same transfer RNA and thus the same protein is produced.

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9
Q

Sickle cell anemia is caused by

A

A single nucleotoid substitution.

*GAG to GUG changes normal hemoglobin to hemoglobin that “sickles” under low oxygen concentrations.

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10
Q

Prokaryotes

A

Include the archaea and bacteria, are the simplest, oldest and most common organisms on the planet.

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11
Q

How does this typic genome of the prokaryote come to a typical eukaryote

A

The typical prokaryote has a much smaller genome

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12
Q

Stretched out, the DNA in E. coli would be (how large compared to the cell?)

A

500x longer than the cell itself.

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13
Q

What are the forms of gene exchange in prokaryotes

A
  • NOT sexual reproduction

* swapping plasmids

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14
Q

gene

A

Indicate the hereditary determinant for a trait.

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15
Q

Alleles

A

Different versions of the same gene responsible fo rthe variation in the traits.

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16
Q

Genotype

A

The alleles found in a particular individual.

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17
Q

Histones

A

important and very evolutionarily conservative proteins. Loops of DNA are wrapped around one histone and locked in by a second, forming a structure called a nucleosome.

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18
Q

Mitosis

A
  • The duplication of the genetic material within a eukaryote cell
  • A duplication of the genetic complement of a eukaryote cell, Since it is usually followed by cell division, it can lead to growth, in a multicellular organism, or asexual reproduction, in a single-celled organism.
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19
Q

Does mitosis produce gametes

A

NO. In sezual organisms, mitosis is peripheral to sexual reproduction, it serves to give rise to the cell types which ultimately “kill themselves off” by splitting and splitting again into 4 very different cells

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20
Q

Sexual reproduction

A

A particular type of reproduction, a sharing of genetic material to form an individual with equal contributions from two separate parents.
THIS INVOLVES
*Formation of haploid sex cells, called gametes, from a diploid cell, a process called Meiosis
*Syngamy (or fertilization), a combination of genetic information from two separate cells to form a diploid cell, called a zygote.

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21
Q

In sexual reproduction where to the gametes come from?

A

Gametes usually, but not always, come from separate parents (egg and sperm)

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22
Q

in sexual reproduction both gametes are _______ and the resulting zygote is _______

A

haploid

diploid

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23
Q

Diploidy

A

The state of having two copies of every single gene

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24
Q

Some examples of organisms who are diploid

A

humans
flies
zebras
potatoes

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25
Q

Homozygous

A

Two copies of every gene are identical matches

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26
Q

Heterozygous

A

Subtle differences between the two copies of a gene

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27
Q

Meiosis

A

The process by which a single diploid cell gives rise to four, genetically different, haploid cells.

  • The diploid progenitor duplicates its genetic material, each chromosome finds its match, four strands cluster in the structures. “crossing over”may occur. *Homologous chromosomes separate
  • chromatids separate
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28
Q

Errors in meiosis

A

Have the potential to produce unusual phenotypes in the offspring

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29
Q

nondisjunction

A

most common meiotic error. An entire homologous pair of chromosomes migrates to the pole of a cell without splitting.

30
Q

The human condition of Down’s syndrom results from

A

An error in meiosis.

A trisomoy at chromosome 21, or the sex chromosomes.

31
Q

How do meiosis and sex produce variation?

A

meiosis-makes 4 cells with DIFFERENT sets of alleles, although the have the same GENES

32
Q

Recombination

A

a result of crossing over, new combinations of alleles on chromosomes may arise.
This can produce variation.

33
Q

Crossing over

A

a cytological phenomenon that occurs during the first of the two meiotic divisions.

  • two strands of DNA form complimentary chromosomes cross over each other, and a break forms.
  • Break is quickly repaired, switching stretches of DNA to create two new chromosomes.
  • **Creates new combinations of alleles on chromosomes and permits favorable alleles to combine together on the same chromosome.
34
Q

Genetic result of crossing over is called…

A

recombination

35
Q

locus

A

means location, and it refers to the place where variation can occur.

36
Q

segregation

A

the process by which a gamete comes to have only one of the two alleles it’s parent possesses, for every gene. It is random, and it occurs because of the separation of homologous chromosomes during the first meiotic division

37
Q

assortment

A

Accounts for the fact that most eukaryotes possess many pairs of chromosomes, is is segregation at two or many loci simultaneously. Assortment is responsible for the variation in gametes created by the random selection of chromosome from each pair into gametes.

38
Q

when genes are on separate chromosomes, it is said that they assort ________.
When they are on the same chromosome they tend to get passed on ______, which can only be broken by recombination, this is called________.

A

Independently
As a unit
Linkage

39
Q

Morphological variation examples

A

hair color, height, eye color etc.

40
Q

Behavioral variation

A

preference for foods, knowledge of languages, choice of clothing.

41
Q

Variation within the white-cheeked rosella.Based on a diagram of where they are from call you tell if the variation is genetic, environmental or both.

A

4 varieties with its own distinct color combination and marking.
You can not tell based on a diagram of where they are from.

42
Q

Attributes

A

But be scored, but do not fall into a continuum.

ex-eye color, political party, blood type, gender

43
Q

Quantitative or measurable variables

A

fall along a measurable axis, and can be measured to observe their place relative to others.

44
Q

Discontinuous measurable variables

A

Fall into discrete intervals. Example-shoe size, number of mates, number of arrests for drunk driving.

45
Q

Continuous measurable variables

A

Do not fall into discrete intervals, exist along a continuum. Ex- height, weight, age

46
Q

statistical population

A

The group of individuals in question.

47
Q

histogram

A

the range of values for the category is broken into intervals, and the number of individuals withing that interval is expressed as the height of a bar.

48
Q

Skewed distribution of histogram

A

more heavily on one side that the other

49
Q

Normal distribution of a histogram

A

Looks like a bell curve

50
Q

Standard deviation

A

the square root of variance

51
Q

variance

A 
the variability of  values in the data set, their tendency to depart from the mean.
sum of (x-mean)^1/N-1
52
Q

Recessive alleles are only expressed in the

A

homozygous state

53
Q

Alleles for albino coloration in many animals result from __________.

A

recessive alleles.

54
Q

Codominance or incomplete dominance

A

the allelic interaction where, in heterozygous state, both alleles are expressed, or the heterozygote is in between the phenotypes of the homozygous individuals for those alleles.

55
Q

in chickens black feather color is codominant with white feather color. What would heteroxygous chickens look like?

A

They would have black and white feathers in a checkered pattern.

56
Q

How many loci does human blood type involve?

A

3, which exhibit both dominance and codominance.

I^A, I^b i^o

57
Q

How many genes do bacteria have?

A

About 1,200 genes

58
Q

How many protein coding genes do human beings have

A

20,000

59
Q

How many protein coding genes do rice have?

A

about 38,000

60
Q

What organisms have the largest genome?

A

Flowering plants, catfish, amphibians

61
Q

No all loci have multiple alleles?

A

no, only a small percentage of loci have multiple alleles, perhaps 1-5% or less, depending on the species.

62
Q

Genes interact with the environment to produce a _____________.

A

phenotype

63
Q

Norm of reaction

A

describes the pattern of phenotypic expression of a particular genotype across different environments.

64
Q

A chicken with black feathers is mated to a chicken with white feathers. 9 offspring in F1 all have checkered black and white feathers. 2 of the F1 mate a produce their own offspring. Diagram the cross, and predict the phenotypic composition of the next generation of F2

A

Start by listing the genotypes of the P1s, this is part of the answer, and you will get nowhere if you skip right to a Punnet square.
The P1s are FwFw and Fb Fb
The white parent can produce one type of gamete, Fw, the black parent can produce one type of gamete, Fb. Note, gametes are always haploid.
The F1 are all FwFb, this is the only possible genotype, given the two parents. Note, adults are always diploid.
These F1 can produce two types of gametes, Fw and Fb.
To produce an F2, these two gametes can unite in four possible ways.
The male F1 parent can produce a Fw or a Fb
The female F1 parent can produce a Fw or a Fb
This gives:
Fw from the male parent x Fw from the female-white chicken
Fb from the male parent x Fb from the female-black chicken
Fw from the male parent x Fb from the female-checkered
Fb from the male parent and Fw from the female-checkered
The colors in the offspring are ¼ black, ¼ white, ½ checkered.
If you answered ¼ to ¾, you should consider that this is a codominant system.

65
Q

law of independent assortment

A

the “particles” for each gene segregate independently of each other (from mendel)

66
Q

law of segregation

A

these “particles segregate, so that individuals with two particles produce gametes with only one particle. (from mendel)

67
Q

how do we get degrees of freedom for a chi square cross?

A

N-1

68
Q

Linkage

A

the result of two loci being located close together on the same chromosome. It causes a departure from independent assortment.

69
Q

How can you tell how far apart loci are?

A

*The proportion of the F2 from a test cross that are recombinants.
Take the number of recombinants and divide by the total, and that gives you r-the proportion of recombinants.
(HINT-recombinants are the F2 that do not resemble the grandparents)
*From r multiply by 100 and you have the distance in map units.

70
Q

Loci that are very close together are said to be….

A

tightly linked, produce few recombinants.

BIO 101 Exam 2 (3 decks)

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