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Genetics Flashcards

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1
Q

What is asexual reproduction?

A

reproduction involving one parent which gives rise to genetically IDENTICAL offspring

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2
Q

What is the importance of cell division?

A
  1. Growth of multicellular organisms
  2. Repair (healing)
  3. Replacing worn out cells
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3
Q

What is the cell cycle?

A

sequence of activities that occurs from one cell division to the next.

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4
Q

What is Binary Fission?

A

Splitting into two. Circular DNA chromosome is replicated, attaches to the cell membrane, are pulled apart as the cell splits in two. It results in two cells with an equal division of DNA.

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5
Q

What uses Binary Fission?

A

Prokaryotes

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6
Q

What is the cell cycle in Eukaryotes?

A
  1. Interphase

2. Miotic Division Phase

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7
Q

What are the stages of interphase?

A
  1. G1 Phase: period of growth and normal metabolic activity. Proteins are synthesized BUT NOT REPLICATED.

S: DNA is duplicated.

G2: Organelles replicate and preparations are made for the separation of the duplicated DNA. Chromosomes BEGIN to condense.

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8
Q

What are the states of Mitotic Division Phase?

A
  1. Mitosis: Division of the nucleus

2: Cytoknesis: Divison of cellular material.

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9
Q

What are the stages of Mitosis?

A
  1. Prophase
  2. Metaphase
  3. Anaphase
  4. Telophase
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10
Q

What happens during interphase in Mitosis?

A

-cell prepares for division by duplicating chromosomes
-chromosomal material is organized into CHROMATIN.
-CHROMATIN is replicated and condensed to become CHROMATID.
-2 CHROMATIDS join in the middle at the CENTROMERE and become SISTER CHROMATIDS (2 replicas of a single chromosome).
(2 Sister Chromatids joined at the centromere become CHROMSOMES)

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11
Q

What happens during Prophase in Mitosis?

A

Chromosomes shorten and thicken (become visible)

CENTRIOLES move to opposite poles of the cell and attach to SPINDLE FIBERS. (Centrioles ARE NOT IN PLANT CELLS)

Nuclear membrane dissolves.

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12
Q

What happens during Metaphase in Mitosis?

A

Chromosomes composed of 2 sister chromatids align along the equator.

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13
Q

What happens during Anaphase in Mitosis?

A

Centromeres divide and sister chromids move to opposite poles.The same number of individual sister chromatids (now called daughter cells) will be found at each pole.

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14
Q

What happens during Telophase in Mitosis?

A

Chromosomes uncoil and become Chromatin again.Spindle fibers dissolve and a nuclear membrane forms around chromatin.
Cell undergoes Cytokinesis and splits the cell into two.

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15
Q

Is Cytokinesis different for Plants and Animals?

A

YES.
Plants: separated by a CELL PlATE

Animals: Separated through a pinching-in process called CLEAVAGE.

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16
Q

What is the function of CENTRIOLES?

A

To organize microtubules, for the formation of spindles and asters in the separation during Metaphase.

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17
Q

What are the three major checkpoints for Eukaryotes in Mitosis?

A
  1. G1-S: is the cell’s DNA suitable for replication?
  2. G2-M: Has the DNA been accurately replicated?
  3. Metaphase-Anaphase: Are he chromosomes aligned properly at the metaphase plate?
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18
Q

What is cloning?

A

Process in which identicall offspring are formed from a single parent cell.

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19
Q

What is budding?

A

asexual. When a small outgrowht from parent’s body breaks off and forms a separate but identical organism.

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20
Q

What is Vegetative Propagation/Fragmentation?

A

in which pieces of the plant (leaves roots, etc) grow into a complete new plant.

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21
Q

What is Vegetative Reproduction?

A

The generation of new plants on RUNNERS (Extention of stems where new plants develop and rely on the parent plant)

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22
Q

What is a blastula?

A

A fertilized egg undergoing rapid mitotic division forming a ball of cells.

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23
Q

What is TOTIPOTENT?

A

A nucleus that can give rise to an entire functional organism.

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24
Q

What is PLURIPOTENT?

A

When cells can differentiate into any of the 3 primary tissues: ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.

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25
Q

How does CLONING work?

A

You ENUCLEATE (destory/remove nucleus) of an egg from A, inject the nucleus of a body cell from B and form a blastula that is a clone of B.

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26
Q

What is TELOMERE SHORTENING?

A

TELOMERES are DNA at eh end of chromosomes to protect DNA strands. Each time a cell divides, the telomere gets shorter and shorter until they can no longer be replicated and die off.

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27
Q

What are FREE RADICALS?

A

Oxygen molecules that can become electrically charged which can damage cells. Caused through metabolic reactions, thus slower metabolism = less free radicals.

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28
Q

What are ANTIOXIDANTS?

A

stimulated through exercise. Removes free radicals.

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29
Q

What are Carcinogens?

A

agents that cause cancer.

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30
Q

What is ANGIOGENESIS?

A

The idea that cancer cells release a growthfactor that causes blood vessels to grow and bring nutrients to the tumor (a mass of cancer cells)

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31
Q

What is METASTASIS?

A

The ability of cancer cells to spread to other areas.

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32
Q

What are BENIGN and MALIGNANT tumors?

A

BENIGN: remain at their original site (do not spread)

MALIGNANT: Spread through metastasis, invade and grow in other normal tissues.

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33
Q

What are physical differences of cancer cells?

A
  • cells vary in shape and have a large nuclei and little cytoplasm.
  • Have unusual number of chromosomes.
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34
Q

What are HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES?

A

Two chromosomes from a particular pair (one inherited from mother, one from father)

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35
Q

How many chromosomes do humans have?

A

46
22 pairs are homologous (Autosomes)
1 pair are sex chromosomes.

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36
Q

What occurs during Meiosis 1?

A

Replicated homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles resulting in 2 haplooid cells with each cell haveing 23 REPLICATED chromosomes.

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37
Q

What occurs during Meiosis 2?

A

Sister chromatids of the 23 replicated chromosomes separate producing 2 cells each with 23 chromatids.

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38
Q

What occurs during Prophase 1?

A

homologous chromosomes pair up through a process call SYNAPSIS. Create a TETRAD. The chromatids from each homolog overlap resulting in CROSSING OVER which allows new combinations in gametes.

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39
Q

What occurs during Metaphase 1?

A

Tetrads align across the equatorial plate of the cell.

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40
Q

What occurs during Anaphase 1?

A

The sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles (SEGREGATION)

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41
Q

What occurs during Telophase 1?

A

Cytoplasm divides forming 2 cells each with 23 REPLICATED sister chromatids.

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42
Q

What occurs during Prophase 2?

A

nuclear membrane disappears and spindle fibers start to form.

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43
Q

What occurs during Metaphase 2?

A

Each chromosome with its sister chromatids line up along the equatorial plate.

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44
Q

What occurs during Anaphase 2?

A

Sister chromatids move to opposite cell poles.

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45
Q

What occurs during Telophase 2?

A

Second division of cytoplasm occur and the nuclear membrane forms. Each of the four cells are now haploid and may function as a gamete.

46
Q

What is NONDISJUNCTION?

A

When homologous chromosomes and chromatids sometimes do not separate during meiosis.

47
Q

What is a TRISOMY?

A

When a zygote has three chromosomes in place of the normal pair due to nondisjunction.

48
Q

What is a MONOSOMY?

A

When a zygote has a single chromosome in place of a homolgous pair due to nodisjunction.

49
Q

What is a KARYOTYPE?

A

Charts that display chromosomes in size order.

50
Q

What is POLYPLOIDY?

A

Having one or more extra SETS of chromosomes. (lethal condition).

51
Q

What is ANEUPLOIDY?

A

Having a single chromosome (monomy) or an extra one (trisomy)

52
Q

What causes DOWN SYNDROME?

A

Trisomic disorder of three chromosome 21.

53
Q

What is AUTOSOMAL ANEUPLOIDS?

A

Nondisjunction of autosomes.

54
Q

What is EDWARDS SYNDROME?

A

Trisomic disorder of chromosome 18.

55
Q

What is PATAU SYNDROME?

A

Trisomic disorder of Chromosome 13.

56
Q

What is TURNER SYNDROME?

A

Monosomic disorder in which a female has a single X chromosome.

57
Q

What is KLINEFELTER SYNDROME?

A

Trisomic disorder in which a male carries an XXY condition.

58
Q

In what three ways does Meiosis ensure genetic variation?

A
  1. Independant Assortment: chromosome align in various ways in Metaphase 1
  2. Random Fertlization
  3. Crossing Over.
59
Q

What is Deletion of chromosomes?

A

A portion of one chromosome is lost during cell division.

60
Q

What is Duplication of chromosomes?

A

a fragment of one chromosome joins the homologous chromosomes. (The segment is repeated).

61
Q

What is Translocation of chromosomes?

A

A fragment of a chromosome is moved (trans-located) from one chromosome to another. (During crossing over)

62
Q

What is inversion of chromosomes?

A

consists of two breaks in one chromosome and the area between the breaks are inverted and reinstated.

63
Q

What are HERMAPHRODITES?

A

condition of having both male and femal sex organs in the same organism.

64
Q

What is PARTHOGENESIS?

A

Type of reporduction where an egg devlops into a new individual without fertilization.

65
Q

What is HEREDITY?

A

Passing of traits (biological charateristcs) from one generation to the next.

66
Q

What are GENES?

A

Made up of DNA and are the basic units of heredity and produce a specific trait in offspring.

67
Q

What are ALLELES?

A

Different forms of the same gene. May be DOMINANT or RECESSIVE.

68
Q

What are HOMOZYGOUS?

A

Pure Breeding. May be dominant or recessive homozygous. (TT or tt)

69
Q

What are HERETEROZYGOUS?

A

HYBRID. (Tt)

70
Q

What is MENDEL’S LAW OF SEGREGATION?

A
  1. Hereditary characteristics are determined genes.
  2. Genes or alleles occur in pairs.
  3. During Meiosis, paired alleles segregate and are distributed in different sex cells.
71
Q

What is a GENOTYPE?

A

The genetic makeup or the gense that an organism contains for a particular trait.

72
Q

What is a PHENOTYPE?

A

Descries the appearance or observable traits of an organism.

73
Q

What is a MONOHYBRID CROSS?

A

A single trait cross.

74
Q

What is a DIHYBRID CROSS?

A

A two trait cross.

75
Q

What is a TEST CROSS (monohybrid)?

A

the act of crossing the unknown genotype by the homozygous recessive. Determines if the individual is pure bred dominant or hybrid.

If all are Tt, than individual is pure bred dominant.

If 50% are Tt, and 50% are tt, the individual is heterozygous.

76
Q

What is a TEST CROSS (dihybrid)?

A

Involves crossing the unknown genoytpe with a recessive homozygous.

If all are TtAa, it is homozygous dominant (TTAA)

If all TtAa, Ttaa, ttAa, ttaa are 25% each, the individual is hereozygous (TtAa)

77
Q

What is the LAW OF SEGREGATION?

A

Pired alleles are distributed to different sex cells because homologous chromosomes separate during meiosis I.

78
Q

What is the LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT?

A

Genes were distributed independently into different gametes.

79
Q

What is INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE?

A

When 2 genes of a pair are equally dominant. Results in a “blend” between the 2 pure forms.

Ex. RR=Red, WW=White, RW=Pink

80
Q

What is CODOMINANCE?

A

Condition where herterozygous form show complete expression of both alleles involved.

Ex. RR=Red, WW=White, RW=Roan (Red and White)

81
Q

What is EPISTASIS?

A

Condition where one gene affects the phenotype expression of another gene.

Ex. B=Black, b=Brown
W=prevents pigment formation
w=allows pigment formation.

82
Q

What are POLYGENIC TRAITS?

A

Traits under the control of more than one pair of alleles.

83
Q

What is PLEIOTROPY?

A

A gene that affects more than one characteristic of the individual.

84
Q

What are two methods in which GENETIC RECOMINBATION occurs?

A
  1. INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

2. CROSSING OVER.

85
Q

What is AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT INHERITANCE?

A

(AA or Aa)

Dominant allele carried on one of the autosomes.

86
Q

What is AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE INHERITANCE?

A

(aa)

Recessive alleles carried on autosomes.

87
Q

Example of AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE DISORDERS?

A

Cystic Fibrosis, Tay-Sachs Disease.

88
Q

Examples of AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT INHERITANCE?

A

Huntington Disease.

89
Q

What is X-LINKED RECESSIVE INHERITANCE?

A

X^bY or X^bX^b

ex. DUCHENNE MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY

90
Q

What is X-LINKED DOMINANT INHERITANCE?

A

X^BY, X^BX^B,X^BX^b

91
Q

What is Y-LINKED INHERITANCE?

A

Disorder is carried on the Y chromosome.

92
Q

What are NUCLEIOTIDES?

A

The 4 building blocks that make up DNA

93
Q

What do NUCLEOTIDES consist of?

A
  1. DEOXYBROSE (5 carbon sugar)
  2. PHOSPHATE GROUP
  3. NITROGEN BASE (A T C G)
94
Q

What are the PURINE NUCLEIOTIDES?

A

NUCLEOTIDES that have a double-ringed structure. The purine nucleotides are nucleotides that consist of ADENINE AND GUANINE.

95
Q

What are the PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES?

A

Nucleotides that are single-ringed. These consist of the nitrogen bases THYMINE AND CYTOSINE.

96
Q

How does DNA REPLICATION work?

A
  1. DNA unzips.
  2. new nucleotides are paired with the DNA strands. (SEMICONSERVATIVE REPLICATION) and fused together by DNA POLYMERASE.
  3. DNA LIGASE ties DNA together.
97
Q

What is MESSENGER RNA (mRNA)?

A

a carrier molecule that read the DNA code and carries it tot he ribosomes where the protein is made.

98
Q

How is RNA different from DNA?

A
  1. Contains RIBOSE SUGAR instead of deoxybrose.
  2. Nitrogen base URACIL replaces thymine. (still pairs up with adenine)
  3. SINGLE STRAND instead of 2, like DNA
  4. MUCH SHORTER than DNA
99
Q

What is TRANSFER RNA (tRNA)?

A

An amino acid carrier which carries the amino acid to the ribosomes by attaching to the CONDON of mRNA with its ANITCODON, leaving the amino acid in the process of creating a protein.

100
Q

What is TRANSCRIPTION (protein synthesis)?

A

Process by which the genetic code is transferred from the DNA to the mRNA in the NUCLEUS.

  1. DNA unzips.
  2. mRNA nucleotides match up with the complementary bases along the DNA strand.
  3. strand of mRNA is formed and detaches from the DNA.
  4. strand of DNA rejoin.
101
Q

What is TRANSLATION (protein synthesis)?

A

Process by which proteins are synthesized using the DNA instructions endcoded in the mrNA in the cytoplasm.

  1. tRNAs carry amino acids to the ribosome.
  2. Anicodons of tRNA match up to complementary codons of mRNA
  3. tRNAs detach leaving a chain of amino acids.
102
Q

What is a SILENT MUTATION?

A

a point mutation with no change tto eh amino acid sequence.

103
Q

What is a MISSENSE MUTATION?

A

a point mutation in which a single nucleotide is changed, resulting in a condon that codes fro a different amino acid.

104
Q

What is a NONSENSE MUTATION?

A

mutations that change an amino acid to a stop codon.

105
Q

What is a FRAMESHIFT MUTATION?

A

A deletion or an insertion that causes the reading frame to completely shift.

106
Q

What causes mutations?

A
  1. Spontaneous errors during replication.

2. MUTAGENS: physical and chemical agents.

107
Q

What are RESTRICTION ENZYMES?

A

Proteins that act lke scissors that can cut DNA at specific points.

108
Q

What is DNA LIGASE?

A

A protein that can join DNA strands together to create a new, artifically recombined DNA molecule.

109
Q

What is one method to separate DNA fragments?

A

Gel Electrophoresis.

110
Q

What are the steps for Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)?

A
  1. Heat is used to separate strands of DNA
  2. Temperature is lowered and two DNA primers and polymerase is added. Start base pairing to DNA strands.
  3. DNA polymerase adds bases tot he primers and builds a sequence complementary to the target sequence.
  4. DNA is replicated.

Biology 30 (2 decks)

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