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Biology Unit 4 > Genetics > Flashcards

Genetics Flashcards

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0
Q

What are complementary base pairings?

A

In DNA the interaction of bases of nucleotides on opposite strands through the formation of hydrogen bonds…2 strands of a DNA molecule are not identical, rathe are complementary to each other…a purine molecule is always paired with a pyrimidine molecule…adenine always pairs with thymine and guanine always pairs with cytosine

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1
Q

What is a nucleotide?

A

The repeating unit of nucleic acids, composed of a sugar group, phosphate group and a nitrogenous base

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2
Q

What is antiparallel?

A

The directionality of the two strands in a DNA molecule; the strands run in opposite directions, with each end of a DNA molecule containing the 3’ end of one strand and the 5’ end of the other strand

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3
Q

Nucleic acid structure…

A

Discovered in 1951 by Rosalind Franklin who viewed DNA as being structured like a coil

All nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) are repeating chains of nucleotides

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4
Q

What are nucleotides?

A

Smallest unit in a piece of DNA (subunit or DNA and RNA) (building blocks of nucleic acids), made up of a group of three components (one phosphate, one sugar and one nitrogenous base - a, t, c, g)

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5
Q

What is DNA?

A
  • 46 strands in humans; each is a twister double helix
  • uses complementary base pairings -each rung in the DNA ladder is made of one purine and one pyrimidine bonded with hydrogen bonds
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6
Q

What are the complementary base pairings?

A

Adenine and thymine

Guanine and cytosine

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7
Q

What are purines?

A

2 rings of sugar
Adenine
Guanine

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8
Q

What are pyrimidines?

A

1 ring of sugar
Thymine
Cytosine

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9
Q

What is chargaffs rule?

A 
%A = %T
%C = %G

%A + %T + %C + %G = 100%

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10
Q

What is antiparallel arrangement?

A

The two sides of DNA are lined up in parallel, but in opposite directions (the one side appears to be a flipped version of the other - there is an extra phosphate group on the top of one and an extra on the bottom of the other, so parallel, but not exactly equal)

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11
Q

How do we read the sequence o bases?

A

From the extra phosphate end to the OH end (or 5’ to 3’)

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12
Q

What is the complementary strand for this original strand …5’ ATGCCGTA 3’

A

3’ TACGGCAT 5’

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13
Q

Where in DNA located in eukaryotic cells?

A
  • in the cell nucleus and never comes out!!!
  • DNA stored as chromosomes with sections clef genes (DNA is equivalent to the chromosomes but not the genes)
  • the entire collection of DNA in an organism is called it’s genome
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14
Q

What is a chromosome and what is genes?

A

DNA stored as chromosomes with sections called genes

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15
Q

What is a genome?

A

The entire collection of DNA in an organism

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16
Q

Where is DNA located in prokaryotic cells?

A
  • DNA stores as nucleoid (circular DNA) but not in a nucleus
  • typically stores one copy of each gene
  • some bacteria have all non-essential DNA loops called plasmids, which look like small bits that have fallen off through the cytoplasm, which can be traded with other bacteria
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17
Q

What is a nucleoid?

A

The way in which DNA is store in prokaryotic cells

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18
Q

What are plasmids?

A

Some bacteria have small non-essential DNA loops which can be traded with other bacteria

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19
Q

What is RNA?

A
  • twisted into a single helix (only half of the strand)

- is a copy of DNA that can be taken out of the buckles an used to direct body functions then destroyed

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20
Q

What are the purines and pyrimidines or RNA?

A

Purines:
Adenine (bonds with uracil)
Guanine

Pyrimidines:
Uracil **
Cytosine

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21
Q

What are fertility drugs?

A

Designed to increase the number of eggs matured per cycle; to increase endometrium thickness and to maintain endometrium thickness for successful pregnancy

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22
Q

What is IUI?

A

Intrauterine insemination:

- sperm sample is taken, washed and injected directly into the uterus within twelve hours of ovulation

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23
Q

What is In Vitro fertilization?

A
  1. Many eggs are matures (through drugs) and are extracted
  2. A sperm sample is then mixed with the eggs in a Petri dish and allowed to fertilize (sometimes directly injected into each egg)
  3. Two or three embryos are transferred into the uterus six days later, could be screened for disease first if wished
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24
Q

What is the human genome project?

A

Map of all human genes ad what they control

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25
Q

How could it be bad knowing the human genome project?

A
  • do you want to know if you are going to develop a genetic disease in the future
  • this knowledge could influence an employer, could increase insurance rates, etc…
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26
Q

What are ribose and deoxyribose and what are the differences?

A

They are both five carbon sugars but ribose is found in RNA and have two OH attached to the bottom while deoxyribose is round in DNA and has one OH and one just H on the bottom

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27
Q

When does DNA replicate?

A

DNA replicates during the s phase of interphase so that each of the 46 chromosomes make a copy of itself (a sister chromatid)

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28
Q

Self-replication of DNA…

A
  • DNA is able to self replicate (make an exact copy of itself)
  • each new strand has one original parent strand and one new daughter strand
29
Q

What is step one of DNA replication?

A

Step 1: initiation (unwinds and unzips)
- the DNA is unwound at the origin of replication (could be at the middle or end of DNA strand)

DNA helicase: unwinds and unzips DNA by breaking hydrogen bonds between the bases creating a replication fork

DNA gyrase: relieves strain on the DNA as it is being unwound (stabilizes strand)

Single stand binding proteins (ssbp): keeps the two strands apart

30
Q

What is step 2 of DNA replication?

A

Step 2: elongation (replication)

- the new strands of DNA are assembled using the original strand as a template (matching up nucleotides)

31
Q

What is DNA polymerase 3?

A

Binds to one of the original DNA strands at the replication fork and begins to add complementary nucleotides in the 5’ to 3’ direction (towards the replication fork). This side of the DNA is called the leading strand (made first)

32
Q

Leading strand…

A

In order for the DNA to be made in the 5’ to 3’ direction, the original strand would be 3’ to 5’ so the new strand would be the opposite

33
Q

Process of lagging strand…

A

On the other side of the original DNA strand the enzyme must move away from the replication fork (building from the 5’ to 3’). This creates short segments called Okazaki fragments on the side, which is called the lagging strand

34
Q

Fragments made through the replication of the lagging strand…

A

Okazaki fragments

35
Q

DNA polymerase 1 and ligase…

A

To fill in the gaps between the Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand, DNA polymerase 1 adds nucleotides and then ligase binds them all together

36
Q

DNA repair…

A

Cells can use DNA polymerase 1 and 2 to run along the surface of Na checking for errors. They proofread the sequence against the original template and can usually cut out and replace incorrect nucleotides (example: A paired with G)

37
Q

At the origin of ______, the enzyme _____ cuts DNA, while ______ keeps it stable and _____ keep the two halves separate.

A

Replication
Helicase
Gyrase
SSBPs

38
Q

DNA only stays in the…

A

Nucleus. You can make a disposable copy of one half of the DNA, subbing in Uralic for thymine; is is RNA. The RNA then leaves the nucleus and can be read

39
Q

What are codons?

A

Group of three bases

40
Q

Each codon is the code for…

A

One of the 20 amino acids that go into a protein

41
Q

How many codons are there?

A

The codon chart shows the 64 different codons that represent the 20 amino acids that go into making proteins

42
Q

What is the start codon?

A

AUG

43
Q

What are the stop codons?

A

UAA, UAG, UGA

44
Q

What are the two common replication mutations?

A

Base substitution and frame shift

45
Q

What is base substitution error?

A

The wrong nucleotide is out in causing ONE CODON to be incorrect

46
Q

What is frame shift?

A

One nucleotide is deleted, causing EVERY CODON AFTER THAT POINT to be incorrect

47
Q

What are some pros of biotechnology?

A
  • figure out possible disease and try to prevent it (making healthy lifestyle changes)
  • more personalized medication for more effective results
  • live in the moment, plan life
  • choose not to have children therefore prevent passing it on
  • prevent by screening embryos and choosing the one without the disease
48
Q

What are the cons of biotechnology?

A
  • genetic discrimination (jobs, health insurance)
  • family may not want to know, individual does lead to family tension
  • low risk of developing disease may lead to poor decision making (eating unhealthy if low risk of heart attack)
  • invasion of children’s privacy
  • expensive to purchase therefore can lead to class difference (upper class is healthier, live longer)
49
Q

What is transcription?

A

Making a disposable photocopy of DNA…RNA

50
Q

Step 1 of transcription?

A
  • the enzyme RNA polymerase attaches itself to one side of the DNA at an area with many TA repeats (called the promoter sequence)
  • the enzyme knows when to start coping when it reaches the start codon AUG
51
Q

Step 2 of transcription?

A

The enzyme reads the DNA and building the RNA strand in the 5’ to 3’ direction by adding complementary nucleotides

52
Q

Step 3 of transcription?

A

The RNA copy is built up until it reaches a stop codon

53
Q

What is the antisense strand?

A

The strand of DNA acting as a template for the RNA

54
Q

What is the sense strand?

A

The side not used as a template. It is called this because it ends up being identical to the RNA strand being made (except that DNA contains T while RNA contains U

55
Q

Transcription of DNA to RNA…

5’ CGGUAAUGCUAGCUA 3’

A

3’ GCCATTACGATCGAT 5’ (antisense)

5’ CGGTAATGCTAGCTA 3’ (sense)

56
Q

What is step 4 of transcription?

A
  • to protect the RNA and help it to be read more easily and hold the letter together one cap is added to the 5’ end and one tail of many adenines (poly a tail) is added to the 3’ end
57
Q

Product of transcription?

A

Messenger RNA (mRNA) and it can leave the nucleus and be read

58
Q

What is translation?

A

Reading the mRNA and assembling a protein in the cytoplasm

59
Q

What is tRNA?

A

An RNA molecule that links the codons on mRNA to the corresponding amino acid for protein synthesis (reference: the workers at a factory)

60
Q

What is the anticodon loop?

A

One side of the tRNA contains the anticodon loop which is a sequence of 3 nucleotides that is complementary to a specific mRNA codon

61
Q

What is the acceptor stem?

A

At the opposite of the tRNA to the anticodon loop, the 3’ single standee region, is the acceptor stem (the base - feet) links codons to amino acid

62
Q

What organelle does mRNA attach to during translation?

A

Ribosomes

63
Q

What is step 1 of translation?

A

Initiation: the amino acid starts to be assemble once the start codon (AUG) is read by the tRNA who’s codon would be UAC. That tRNA molecule would be carrying the amino acid methionine on it’s acceptor stem

64
Q

What is step 2 of translation?

A

Elongation of the protein: the mRNA moves along the ribosomes and it’s codons continue to be read. Amino acids are added to the protein, joined together by peptide bonds

65
Q

What is step 3 of translation?

A

Termination: once a stop is reached (UAA, UAG, UGA) the protein is finished. It folds, is wrapped up by the Golgi bodies and is shipped out of the cell by the vesicles

66
Q

How does the antibiotic streptomycin kill bacteria?

A

It prevents tRNA molecules carrying methionine from binding and working. This would not allow the bacteria to make any proteins to repair itself, therefore killing it

67
Q

What is translation?

A
  1. DNA in nucleus serves as a template for mRNA
  2. mRNA is processed before leaving the nucleus
  3. mRNA moves into the cytoplasm and becomes associated with ribosomes
  4. tRNAs with anti codons carry amino acids to mRNA
  5. Anticodon codon complementary base pairings occur
  6. Polypeptide synthesis takes place one amino acid at a time
68
Q

mRNA vs. tRNA?

A

mRNA is used for making proteins - codons on chart, while tRNA is just used for linking the mRNA and the amino acid

69
Q

Most common amino acid?

A

Methionine is at the start of every protein as there is only one start codon AUG

70
Q

Number of tRNA combinations?

A

There are 64 types of tRNA because there are 64 types of codons

Biology Unit 4 (2 decks)

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