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genetics Flashcards

1
Q

What makes up a nucleotide?

A

phosphate group, sugar, nitrogenous base

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2
Q

what nucleotides are purines?

A

adenine and guanine

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3
Q

what nucleotides are pyrimidines?

A

uracil, thymine, cytosine

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4
Q

if the molecule is DNA what hangs off of the 2’ ?

A

H

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5
Q

if the molecule is RNA what hangs off of the 2’ ?

A

OH(hydroxyl)

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6
Q

how are nucleotides added?

A

5’ to 3’

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7
Q

what bonds as used to add nucleotides?

A

phosphodiester bonds

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8
Q

what stage of the cell cycle does DNA get replicated?

A

S phase

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9
Q

what does semi conservative mean?

A

one newly synthesized strand and one old strand

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10
Q

DNA replication is….?

A

semi conservative

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11
Q

DNA in prokaryotic vs eukaryotic cells

A

prokaryotic
-genome is in the form of a circular, double-stranded -DNA molecule
-no nucleus, but a region containing the DNA called the nucleoid
-different enzymes
-some prokaryotes have plasmids

Eukaryotic
-more DNA
-DNA needs to be compacted
-histones (proteins) help in the winding and folding of DNA

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12
Q

what enzymes are used during initiation phase of DNA replication

A

TOPOISOMERASE, HELICASE, BINDING PROTEINS

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13
Q

what enzymes are used during elongation phase of DNA replication

A

DNA POLYMERASE III, PRIMASE, DNA POLYMERASE I, LIGASE

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14
Q

what enzymes are used during termination phase of DNA replication

A

none. all enzymes are removed from completed DNA strands

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15
Q

what is Helicase

A

enzymes that unravel and separate the double-stranded DNA

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16
Q

what do binding proteins and topoisomerase do?

A

they help to stabilize the strands of DNA

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17
Q

Replication bubble

A

forms as strands of DNA separate

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18
Q

what is the Replication fork

A

each end of the bubble
where strands are still attatched

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19
Q

what does Primase do

A

attaches RNA primers on each strand of DNA

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20
Q

what does DNA polymerase III do

A

begins adding nucleotides that are complementary to the template (original) strand

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21
Q

role of DNA polymerase I

A

-has the ability to cut and remove all RNA primers.
-It can then insert DNA to replace the RNA

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22
Q

purpose of DNA Ligase

A

this enzymes reconnects the newly inserted DNA with the rest of the synthesized strand.

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23
Q

Mispairing of nucleotides

A

Sometimes a nucleotide can pair up to a different nucleotide (ex. C to A) due to the presence of rare isomers of nucleotides (due to a tautomeric shift) or the physical misalignment of nucleotides during pairing (wobble).

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24
Q

Strand slippage

A

Sometimes strands can loop out resulting in either the addition or deletion of nucleotides in the newly synthesized strand

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25
Q

MISMATCH REPAIR

A

Mismatch repair occurs shortly after replication of the newly synthesized DNA strand. A specialized group of enzymes (Mut proteins) target deformities in the DNA strands. Using the parent strand as a guide, these enzymes remove incorrect nucleotides from the new (daughter) DNA strand.

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26
Q

Telomeres

A

non-coding regions found at the ends of our chromosomes

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27
Q

Introns

A

non-coding regions within a gene that are removed before the gene is expressed

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28
Q

p arm

A

shorter arm of the chromosome

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29
Q

q arm

A

longer arm of the chromosome

30
Q

Gene Locus

A

the location of a gene on a chromosome

31
Q

what is the central dogma (principle) of genetics?

A

DNA to RNA to Protein

32
Q

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

A

a family of RNA molecules that carry coding instructions from DNA to the ribosomes that create protein.

33
Q

Stop codons

A

UAG, UAA, and UGA

34
Q

Transcription

A

Transcription takes place in the nucleus where mRNA is transcribed from the template (or antisense strand).

35
Q

Translation

A

Translation takes place in the ribosome which begins translating codons. Ribosomes match up the codon to the corresponding amino acid starting with a start codon and it continues reading the mRNA strand one codon (3 nucleotides) at a time with each codon coding for a specific amino acid. This creates a chain of amino acids (polypeptide)! Translation stops once a stop codon is reached.

36
Q

where does transcription take place?

A

in the nucleus

37
Q

what is the purpose of transcription?

A

to produce an RNA copy of a small section of DNA.

38
Q

what is the purpose of RNA polymerase and transcription factors?

A

to unwind the double-stranded DNA and connects to the antisense DNA strand at a particular site

39
Q

Transcription factors

A

proteins that bind with the RNA polymerase and help activate and control the rate of transcription.

40
Q

Transcription - Elongation

A

-the RNA polymerase complex begins synthesizing mRNA strand in the 5’ to 3’ direction
-several strands of mRNA can be produced at once
- there is no proofreading function
- the RNA polymerase complex continues until it reaches a stop sequence where it then releases from the DNA.

41
Q

Transcription -Termination

A

1- at the stop sequence RNA polymerases detach

2- DNA molecule reforms double helix structure

42
Q

what is added to mRNA before it leaves the cell

A

-addition of a 5’ cap
-3’ poly-A tai

43
Q

tRNA

A

a folded strand of RNA that contains an anticodon region (written in 3’ to 5’) that matches up with a specific mRNA codon sequence and a region to carry an amino acid. Specific enzymes will attach the appropriate amino acid to the corresponding anticodon.

44
Q

initiation- translation

A

1- small and large ribosomal subunits assemble along with the initiator tRNA around the start codon on the mRNA strand.
- this initiator tRNA (with methionine) sits in the P site of the ribosome

45
Q

ELONGATION- translation

A

-tRNA with the corresponding anticodon for the next 3 nucleotides in the mRNA sequence moves into the A (amino) site in the ribosome
-amino acid(s) from the tRNA in the P (peptide) site bonds (peptide bond) with the incoming amino acid positioned in the A site.
the ribosome moves
-another 3 nucleotides (one codon) along the mRNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction
-tRNAs within the ribosome shift over one position so that the A site is again open to receive another tRNA.
-tRNA found in the E site will exit the ribosome

46
Q

termination-TRANSLATION

A

-a stop codon signals for the separation and release of the polypeptide chain and the disassembly of the ribosome
-the polypeptide goes to fold through its secondary, tertiary and quaternary (if applicable) structures

47
Q

what is a mutation?

A

A mutation is a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA

48
Q

what is as Single-gene mutation?

A

a mutation that involves changes in the nucleotide sequence of one gene

49
Q

what is a Chromosome mutation?

A

a mutation that involves changes in chromosomes and may involve many genes

50
Q

what is a Point mutation?

A

a mutation involving a single base pair substitution

51
Q

what is a Frameshift mutation?

A

a mutation caused by the addition or deletion of a number of nucleotides not divisible by three, resulting in a change in the reading frame

52
Q

what is a Silent mutation?

A

a mutation that does not change the amino acid sequence of a protein

53
Q

what is a Missense mutation?

A

a mutation that changes the amino acid sequence of a protein

54
Q

Nonsense mutation

A

a mutation that shortens a protein by introducing a stop codon

55
Q

Mutagen

A

increases the rate of changes to the DNA sequence of an organism’s genome

56
Q

what is a Spontaneous Mutations?

A

occur naturally in the cell during regular cellular activity (ex. replication, mitosis, meiosis)

57
Q

what is a Induced Mutations ?

A

are caused by outside environmental factors ex. chemical and physical mutagens.

58
Q

what is a Transposon?

A

a short segment of DNA capable of moving within the genome of an organism

59
Q

what is the operator?

A

The operator is the DNA region that can inhibit the transcription of the operon when a repressor binds to the operator site.

60
Q

what is The CAP-binding site

A

The CAP-binding site helps to speed up transcription.

61
Q

what is The promoter region?

A

The promoter region is where the RNA polymerase binds in order start transcription.

62
Q

what happens in the absence of lactose?

A

In the absence of lactose, repressors bind to the operator site and stops the transcription of the genes (operon).

63
Q

gene expression in prokaryotes vs eukaryotes

A

prokaryotes
-genes are grouped into operons
-each operon is controlled by its own regulatory;atory region
-RNA polymerase can directly bind to DNA
-small number of transcription factors

eukaryotes
-genes not grouped
-each gene controlled by its own promoter/regulatory region
-many different transcription factors
-transcription factors must be in place first on promoter region for RNA polymerase to bind to DNA

64
Q

what is an operon?

A

a unit made up of linked genes which is thought to regulate other genes responsible for protein synthesis.

65
Q

PCR steps

A

-Increasing the temperature of the DNA sample helps to separate the double-stranded DNA

-The sample is cooled and DNA primers are allowed to bind to specific sequences on the separated strands of DNA

-The temperature is increased again and the taq polymerase enzymes go to work in synthesizing the complementary strands starting from the DNA primers. Taq polymerase is a DNA polymerase that works well in higher temperatures.

-The sample is then cooled temporarily until this process is repeated again several times.

66
Q

is DNA (+) or (-)

A

(-)

67
Q

what is Gel electrophoresis ?

A

Gel electrophoresis is a method that uses an electric field to pull fragments of DNA (*STRs) through a gel

68
Q

how are DNA fragments sorted in Gel electrophoresis?

A

DNA fragments are sorted according to their size as smaller fragments travel through the gel more quickly than larger ones

69
Q

what needs to happen before gel electrophoresis is done?

A

Typically DNA samples need to be amplified (more copies) using PCR and then cut with restriction enzymes to form desired DNA fragments.

70
Q

what is The CRISPR/Cas system used for?

A

The CRISPR/Cas system has been used for gene editing (adding, disrupting or changing the sequence of specific genes).

71
Q

what is the CRISPR/Cas9 system?

A

The CRISPR/CAS9 system is a prokaryotic (bacterial) immune system that generates resistance to invading genetic elements such as plasmids and phages, and provides a form of acquired immunity.

72
Q

how does CRISPER/cas9 program allow gene editing?

A

This allows scientists to program CRISPR/Cas9 to cut a specific sequence and allow for cutting out genes and allowing new genes to be inserted in their place

biology (4 decks)

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