genes to ecosystems Flashcards
where are shallow water and coral ecosystems distributed
around the tropics
what is the estimation of the total number of marine species and what proportion of these are coral species
1.5 million - 50% of which are coral species
why do Scottish corals cope better than tropical corals
they are not as sensitive to water temperature fluctuation
ecosystems are in a constant state of …………….
flux
what are the steps of reef radiations in the cenzoic
- mass extinction
- post extinction time of anoxia and changes in sea water chemistry – coral and reef gap
- stony corals present in shallow water carbonates but not as reef builders - reef recovery
- adaptive radiation
- reef extinction
what is adaptive radiation
when organisms diversify rapidly from and ancestral species
what do major coral extinction events correspond to
rapid cataclysmic environmental changes
where do corals live
in shallow warm water usually between late 20-late 30 C
what is the temperature of corals usually when they are bleaching
late 30s
describe the nutritional content of waters that are undergoing coral bleaching
nutrient poor with poor oxygen content
what are corals and what do they feed on
cnidarians and they feed on zoo plankton
what organism have coral formed a facultative endosymbiotic relationship with and what do they provide them with
zooxanthellae dinoflagellate - they provide coral with vital additional nutrients
90% of all algal nutrients are used by coral including 2 essential amino acids
what is facultative endosymbiosis
endosymbiotic - when an organisms lives inside another
facultative - can survive without the relationship for short periods of time
how do algae and coral benefit from the endosymbiotic relationship
algae get a nutrient rich stable refuge
coral get food
are zooxanthellae and coral showing specificity in their relationship
yes - zooxanthellae clades are specific to particular coral families
is the zooxanthellae and coral relationship always mutualistic
no it can turn parasitic - coral bleaching
what is important to note about coral polyps
each polyp is an individual organ
where are the algal dinoflagellates found in the coral
they are found in the gastrodermis of the tentacles of coral polyps
what happens when coral bleaching occurs
- when the dinoflagellates living inside the coral get hot (due to climate change) their photosystems start working too fast and produce ROS which cause damage
- in response, the corals exocytose the symbiont (dinoflagellates) and the coral bleaches as a result
what kind of damage do the ROS produced by dinoflagellates cause
oxidative damage
DNA damage
cell death
give some examples of environmental stresses that can contribute to causing coral bleaching
- CO2 emissions and climate change - sea surface temperatures increase
- ozone depletion - increased solar irradiance
- deforestation
- silt deposition (granule between sand and clay) - can cause anoxia by blanketing corals and preventing them from photosynthesising
- fertilizer run off - can cause algal blooms to grow which use oxygen and cause coral anoxia - overfishing
- prey overabundance - the prey use up a lot of oxygen which causes coral anoxia
what is anoxia
lack of oxygen
mutualistic relationship of coral and algae maintains the ……….
ecosystem
the relationship between coral and algae can become tempestuous, what does this mean
it s no longer mutualistic - it turns parasitic
what does assigning value to ecosystem services provide
it acts as a motivational tool to encourage its conservation
what are services that the marine ecosystem provides
habitat for fisheries tourism biodiversity coastal protection carbon sinks - lots of carbon fixation occurs in coral reefs - corals store carbon in their exoskeletons medicine and drug discovery
why is monetizing ecosystems services important
it is an important means for ecologists and conservation biologists to engage with government and industry
what is an mpa and what does it provide
it is a marine protected area which can provide conservation status and prevent physical damage to reefs and associated animal and plant communities
what percentage of the ocean is no take
0.5%
what percentage of the ocean is protected
4%
can we fish in mpas and no take areas
we can still fish in mpas but not in no take areas
what 2 problems does climate change cause in association with coral bleaching
increased climate change
- increased water temperature
- increased CO2 - causes acidification - exoskeletons are made from calcium carbonate - calcium carbonate dissolves in acid making it difficult for coral to deposit carbon skeletons
are changes in the environment outpacing potential for adaptation and resilience
possibly or we are heading in that direction anyway
which has a higher proportion of protected areas, marine or terrestrial
terrestrial
when talking about pattern and process in an evolutionary context what do we mean
the pattern we see are the changes in the fossil record over time - evolution, and the process is natural selection
we can infer ancestry through ………….
homology
give an example of homology
pakicetus, pig and deer all have the same ankle homology
what results in the sudden adaptive radiation of whales t
an ecological opportunity was presented in the shallow equatorial Tekys ocean which drove natural selection of those that could exploit the nutrient rich environment
terrestrial mammals –> whales
natural selection drive ………….
evolutionary change
what evidence tells us that change is happening
changes overtime in the fossil and gene record and homologies
what model best fits the evolution contained by evidence
natural selection
what were the 6 proposed theories of natural selection before darwins theory came about - indicate which ones were scientifically based and which were religiously based
lamarckianism - science - lose unrequired characteristics - acquired traits are heritable
catastrophism - science - series of catastrophic events defines the fossil record
scalae naturae - religion
mutationalism - science - species emerge in large jumps
orthogenesis - religion
theistic - religion
every species is fertile enough that if all species survived and produced offspring then the population would grow - why is it that populations are mainly stable in terms of size then
despite periodic fluctuations, populations remain roughly the same size even though there is capacity to grow rapidly
this is because the environment is limited
describe darwins theory of natural selection
resources are limited and stay relatively stable over time
a struggle for survival ensues
individuals in a population may vary and much of this variation is heritable
individuals less suited to the environment are less likely to survive and reproduce, whereas those more suited to the environment are more likely to survive and reproduce
variations accumulate over time to form …….. ………..
new species
what did mendel study
inheritance of phenotypic traits by crossing peas
which two rules did mendel develop
- law of segregation
2. law of independent assortment
what is the law of segregation
2 alleles in a pair segregate into different gametes during meiosis
what is the law of independent assortment
random orientation of pairs of homologous chromosomes at metaphase plate of meiosis 1
does selection act upon phenotypes or genotypes
it acts on phenotypes and these phenotypes are determined by the genotype
what are the 4 different types of phenotype distribution
normal distribution
stabilising/purifying selection
directional selection
disruptive selection
what is normal distribution
there is not selection pressure - we see a normal bell curve
what is stabilising/purifying selection
selection against extreme trait values with phenotypic variation lost from the population - the mean trait value stays the same
what is directional selection
selection against mean trait values - mean trait value moves in response to the direction/intensity of the selection pressure
what is disruptive selection
selection against the mean trait- results in multi model trait distribution - 2 humps
what is heritability denoted as in the breeders equation
h^2
what is the heritability of a given trait defined as
the ratio of the genetic variation to the total phenotypic variation
what is phenotypic plasticity
variability against the same genetic background - environment matters - it can be difficult to disentangle environmental and genetic influences on phenotypic variation
what is the heritability equation
h^2=Vg/Vp
how can we directly measure heritability
we can look at how well trait values correlate between populations - how much do we look like our parents
look at graphs of parental trait vs F2 trait - the gradient of the line is the heritability - the closer to 1 the gradient the stronger the heritability
the greater/weaker the heritability of a trait, the faster a species can respond to a selective pressure
greater
what is the breeders equation
R=h^2s evolutionary response (change in the phenotype between generations) = heritability (transmissibility of a phenotype) x selection difference (change in phenotype due to selection)
given that h^2 = 1 and G1 before selection was 4m and G1 after selection was 4.5m what is R (the evolutionary response)
R= h^2 x S = 1 x 0.5 = 0.5 s = 4.5 - 4
some characteristics of sexually dimorphic species could not readily be explained by ……….. …………
natural selection
what are the two methods of sexual selection
Intrasexual - competition between member of the same sex to access mates
intersexual selection - members of one sex choose members of the other sex
if male reproductive success is more variable than females what does this indicate
males are competing for females - strong sexual selection on males
if male and female reproductive success is roughly the same what does this indicate
there is little competition - low sexual selection
If female reproductive success is more variable than males what does this indicate
females compete for males - strong sexual selection on the females
what suggest that humans and apes are related
homology
what are the homologies between apes and humans
large brains, no tail, erect posture, flexibility of hips, ankle, wrist, thumb - all of which have very similar structure
what can we use to determine phylogenetic tree relationships
fossil evidence
how is mitochondrial DNA inherited
it is passed on from females to their children and would die out if someone doesn’t have nay children or if the mother only has sons
how are y chromosomes inherited
they are passed from father to son and die out when a father only has daughters or has no children
going back each generation what happens to the amount of inherited nuclear DNA
for every generation you go back, the shared nuclear DNA halves
what I a molecular clock
technique that uses the mutation rate of biomolecules to deduce the time in history when 2 or more life forms diverged
what do we need to know to estimate how old individuals are in a lineage
generation time and mutation rate
what types of DNA can we use to work out the molecular clock
nuclear/mitochondrial/Y chromosome
DNA differences reflect ………. ……….
evolutionary history
new devices can sequence DNA in as little as ………….
a few hours
what evidence suggests that Neanderthals and modern humans coexisted
fossils and other evidence
describe the timeline of Neanderthal and modern human existence
7 million ya - coalescence time of human and Neanderthal sequences
3 million ya - split of ancestral human and Neanderthal populations
2 million ya - earliest known atomically modern humans
40, 000 ya - earliest modern humans in Europe
30, 000 ya - most recent known Neanderthal remains (extinction)
provide an example of hoe a body can be preserved so that it can still be sequenced a long time after death
frozen - decay happens much more slowly
90% of human variation predates what
leaving Africa
why is variation larger in 300000 chimps than 7 billion humans
chimps are more genetically variable than humans. the chimp population has decreased and is now relatively stable. the population still retains its genetic variability
human population still reflects a much smaller population because it has grown so fast and genetic variability has not caught up
within the UK population do we see a lot of genetic differences
yes there are subtle differences between different areas of the UK but there are more parts of the genome that are the same than different
what is the most isolated human population on earth
Tristan de cuhna
the most recent population of Tristan de cuhna was 264 - what did this population descend from
8 males and 7 females
what caused the population to leave the island
a volcano erupted and the population fled to south Hampton where they were studied from a health point of view
what did they find when they studied the Tristan de cuhna
they found that every sibling were cousins to each other
the y chromosome fell into 2 groups - south western Europe and north western Europe
there were 9 y chromosome haplotypes found
what was found in terms of asthma in the Tristan de cuhna population
23% of the islanders have asthma and 57% show symptoms
it was suggested that 3 ancestors were asthmatic
it is unlikely that this is due to an environmental effect because the environment is very rural and fairly constant
the scientists were able to look for genetic risk factors for asthma by studying the population
due to the ……….. effect, islanders are likely to share the same pre-disposition genes
founder
give an example were certain things attract people of certain ethnicities
100m sprint attracts Jamaicans - 14.5% of sub 10 second 100m runners are from Jamaica
why are Jamaicans good at sprinting
slave trade - the fastest runners from west African descent are from countries most heavily involved in slave trade
culture - Jamaican culture puts its sprinters among the professional elite
how many key genes are there that influence sprinting ability
10
what is the main gene that influences sprinting ability
alpha-actn3 - if you have the null mutant you won’t be a world class sprinter - no top power athletes have the null allele - the product of the gene is involved in actin cross linking in skeletal muscle
what are the point of evolutionary trees
they summarise evolution
what are alleles
different copies of the same gene
what is a species
a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding
what is a biological species
a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable fertile offspring
what is a morphological species
distinguishes a species by body shape and other structural features
what is the ecological species concept
defines a species in terms of its ecological niche, the sum of how members of a species interact with the non living and living parts of the environment
what is allopatric speciation
speciation resulting from an external geographical barrier
what is the allopatric founder effect
when a small population becomes isolated and undergoes rapid evolution due to non-random sample of genes, different environment etc. the gene pool is no longer representative of the previous total population so the sub population diverges
what is sympatric speciation
populations may differ in habitat, behaviour, adaptations, assertive mating causing natural selection and divergence
adaptive radiation
process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms. a large group species all descend from one ancestor e.g. glalpaegos finches
what is the difference in evolutionary trees between no random and random speciation
random speciation results in reasonably balanced evolutionary trees
non random speciation results in evolutionary trees with a lot more species on one side than the other - this large amount of speciation is adaptive radiation
what are possible causes of adaptive radiation
key innovations (swim bladder, pharyngeal jaw) environmental changes (new habitats) ecological changes (new opportunities)
how can we quickly establish a species
genome sequencing - genes of individuals in the same species are very similar but genes of individuals in different species may show little to no overlap
what is the single most species rich vertebrate group
bony fish
what was the 3rd whole genome duplication
bony fish
why are bony fish buoyant
they have swim bladders
what are bony fish innovative jaw structures
protruding upper jaws
secondary jaws - pharyngeal jaws
what is a swim bladder
the equivalent to the human lung - the gas inside it gives the fish buoyancy
highlight the differences between sharks and piranhas
sharks are very streamline because they need to move constantly so that they don’t sink because they don’t have a swim bladder. the sharks need to be streamline so that their energy use is efficient
piranhas have swim bladders so can just stay still and not sink - they don’t need to be so streamline because they don’t have to move around so much
what is a kinetic skull
mammalian skulls are mostly fused bone and the lower jaw moves
many bony fish skulls have multiple moving parts
what are primitive jaws
no pucker - upper jaws don’t protrude
what are advanced jaws
deadly pucker - upper jaw bones protrude
what can bony fish do with their jaws
detach them
what are pharyngeal jaws
second set of jaws contained within the fishes throat and are distinct from the primary oral jaws. these fish have modified gill arches - the jaws help fish manipulate and swallow prey
do all pharyngeal jaws have teeth
no some have teeth and some have protuberances
what is insular/island giantism and dwarfism
a biological phenomenon on which the size of an animal isolated on an island increases dramatically or decreases dramatically in comparison to its mainland species
what happens to small mainland species when isolated on an island
they evolve to be larger
what happens to large mainland species when isolated on an island
they evolve to be smaller
give examples of island giantisms
giant turtle
komodo dragon
nearly all major phyla appear in ……….. ………….
Cambrian rocks
what caused the Cambrian explosion
environmental changes - increase in oxygen levels, melting of snowball earth –> allowed more adaptation
developmental changes - the appearance of HOX genes which regulate segmentation in animals allowing for more complex body structures
ecological changes - evolution of eyes created a huge selection pressure and caused an arms race between predators and prey
what is the 6th mass extinction and what is it caused by
the Anthropocene - caused by the rise of humans - seen in the loss of mega fauna e.g. dire wolves and woolly mammoths
what is causing the extinction of mega fauna
humans hunting megaherbivores causing extinction of predators too
climate change - e.g. end of the ice age
disease form humans and/or associated animals
second order predation - humans kill the predators resulting in prey overabundance and collapse
when humans arrive in a country, mega fauna plummets - in which country has this effect been less severe
Africa
what has been a proposed method of bringing back woolly mammoths
we have frozen mammoths DNA
we could use indian elephants to bring back mammoths because they are very closely related
problem - elephants are very social animals and if the mammoth was brought back it wouldn’t be able to socialise
extinct animals genes leave traces in their …………
descendants
1-4% of DNA in Eurasians comes from …………..
Neanderthals
what is our best estimate of the number of species on earth
8.7million give or take 1.3 million
if discovery of a branch of species tails off what does this suggest
that there may not be many species left to find
how can we estimate the number of species
we can constrict our estimate using the basic classification for life. the further up the classification the more certain we are of how much stuff there is in each level
give the order of classification with increasing specificity
domain kingdom phylum class order family genus species
what is GBIF
programme that is planning to digitise all specimens so that the info can be put on a map to show the geographical distributions
why is the mapping of species idea biased
most of the info is collected from the USA and there are huge gaps of information
none of the data from Kenya comes from Kenya
the maps actually show where the knowledge of biodiversity is not biodiversity itself
what is citizen science in biodiversity studies
when citizens can help collect diversity data bu this only happens in places with time and money
examples are iNaturalist and lifescanner
what is the problem with the public’s perception of biodiversity
they only know about large animals and cute animals which actually present a minority and single celled organisms are the most abundant
why were microbiologists not happy with the archaea species estimate in the ocean being 1
because there are so many archaea
why is DNA sequencing useful for biodiversity studies
it is quick and creates a DNA based registry for a species
what is DNA barcoding
when species are given a barcode index number instead of latin names - already 20,300 species have been sequenced in this way which is the same number previously achieved in 257 years
how much of the DNA on earth have we sequenced
1x10-22% so the fraction of microbial diversity that we have sequenced is effectively 0
what are the 3 levels of ecosystem organisation
individual organism
species/population
community
what is a population
a group of individuals of the same species inhabiting the same area and functioning as a basic unit of a biotic community
what is a community
an interacting group of various species in a common location
an assemblage of populations of plants, bacteria, animals and fungi that live together in an area and interact with each other
what is an ecotype and provide an example
a genetically distinct population within a species that has adapted to environmental conditions
killer whale ecotypes
how many killer whale ecotypes are there and do they interbreed
12 - they can breed and produce fertile offspring but they will only do so in captivity
give examples of differences between whale ecotypes
small physical differences as well as different food preferences language, social structure and hunting behaviours
what is primary succession
it occurs when organisms colonize an area of land devoid of life usually after a catastrophic natural event that leaves the land barren
during primary succession what is the first thing to arrive
vegetation - in particular, fast growing species that supply many nutrients e.g. algae, fungi and simple plants such as lichen and mosses
what arrives after initial vegetation during primary succession
a thin layer of soil build up so that more advanced plants such as grasses and ferns can grow
what happens during primary succession after successful colonisation of plants
animals arrive
what is secondary succession and how is it different to primary succession
secondary succession is growth after destruction of existing vegetation or replacing an established community with different plants and animals - different to primary succession because there is still remains of vegetation - the land isn’t completely devoid of life
in secondary succession if you remove the first layer of vegetation there is nutrient rich soil underneath where as in primary succession the land is bare
secondary ecological succession occurs where there is already primary vegetation
what events can lead to secondary succession
fire
do most ecological changes occur as primary or secondary succession
secondary
most biological communities are in a constant state of ……..…… succession
secondary
secondary succession is gradual and is always moving towards …………. ………..
climax community
give examples that can set back the process of succession
disturbances like flooding or wildfires or man caused events like logging
what is climax community
once the community has reached a relatively stable state through ecological succession
what are intermediate stages of ecological succession
the stages between ecological succession and the climax community
what are the 7 stages of forest succession over time
- disturbance
- bare rock
- mosses/grasses
- grasses/perennials
- woody pioneering
- fast growing trees
- climax forest
- larger long lived trees
what happens to biodiversity, biomass and soil layer with ecological succession progression
they all increase
what is succession
sequence of development of new vegetation from a sterile surface
what are 5 key biological processes
growth metabolism activity thermoregulation reproduction
what is population survival dependent on
individual survival, reproduction and fitness
what are density independent population processes
any influence on a population’s birth or death rates regardless of the population density
what are examples of density independent factors
light, wind, salt, water, temp, fires, tornado, draught, pH
they are typically physical factors of the environment
is the effect of density independent factors on one species the same for all species
not necessarily
what are the negative effects of salt
desiccates cells, toxic
what are the negative effects of water
desiccates cells, reduces photosynthesis
what are the negative effects of temperature
damage from freezing, water loss
what are the negative effects of pH
damage from toxic compounds, changes gas exchange
what is migration
the regular and directional movement of organisms between 2 locations
why do organisms migrate
- to find resources
- to find better conditions
- reducing competition
- avoid inbreeding depression
what are the risks of migration
energy cost is generally large
increased risk of predation possibly
lack of settlement
what are density dependent population processes
they occur when population growth rates are regulated by the density of a population - the factors either increase or decrease the birth and death rates of the population in accordance with their density
when do density dependent factors change affect
when the density of the population changes the factors can have different effects
what is the carrying capacity
the largest population size that can be sustained indefinitely with the available resources
give examples of density dependent factors
predation, parasitism, disease and competition
what is competition
negative affects by one organism consuming or controlling access to a limited resource
what are the 2 possible outcomes of competition
co-existence - ecological differentiation
elimination - dominant species outcompetes others
what makes a species a good competitor
broad distribution and abundance
what is competition based on
success of traits and stress/distribution trade off
give an example of competition
between barnacles - they both adopt their realised niches to avoid competition - co-existence
what is a fundamental niche
the set of resources with which organisms could survive - adopted in the absence of competition
what is a realised niche
the set of resources with which the organism actually survives - adopted during competition - subset of the fundamental niche
give some examples of invasive plants
American skunk cabbage
Himalayan balsam
giant hogweed (causes blister on skin)
rhododendron
give some examples of invasive animals
American mink American signal crayfish killer shrimp harlequin ladybird carpet sea squirt
in a larger/smaller population there is a greater chance that parasites will spread
larger
what is crypotocotyl lingua
a parasite that spends part of its life in periwinkles which are then eaten by gulls
the parasite goes through the gull’s GI tract and spreads back to periwinkles through faeces
the greater the habitat and niches the greater/lower the biodiversity
greater
what are darwins finches a good example of
speciation to avoid competition
give 2 examples of mutualistic relationship
zooxanthellae and coral
hippo and birds
what is resource availability dependent on
plant communities and their stage in succession
what factors affect population growth
resource availability
density dependent factors
give 5 examples of migration
- monarch butterflies - spend summer in north America feeding on millwead. when this decrease they migrate to mexico in autumn. they must follow the land so they can refuel because they can’t store energy
- leatherback turtles - travel to feed in the open ocean then migrate back to their nesting beach
- zebra and wildebeest - migrate to river and lakes in the dry season where there is more vegetation
- arctic tern spend summer in arctic where it breeds then migrates to Antarctica to follow its food source
- motnague harriet - migrates from Europe to Africa following lad to avoid storms
what animal’s migration patterns change at different stages in life
tuna
how are zebra and wildebeest migration patterns being interrupted
fencing from farming
which other animal travels from north to south latitudes to follow a food source
bar-tailed goduit
what are the 3 types of migration
breeding - plentiful resources and predation protection
tracking - predators following prey migration
refuge - avoidance of bad conditions
list some advantages of migration
exploit new resources seasonally
protection of vulnerable young
avoid inbreeding depression
reduce competition
list some risks of migration
bad weather lack of emergency stops predation disorientation potential lack of final stops
what are 4 ways we can track migration
point counts - counting the number of individuals coming in - no indication of where they have come from
natural markings - natural marking and ringing can ID individuals across the globe
radar - can track bird density - also weather patterns
satellite - can track individuals by attaching a satellite transmitter - gives exact location - continuous tracking rather then single point
how have some butterflies adapted to confer an advantage for migration
butterflies with greater wing span are able to carry out longer migration
how is wing size adapted for migration
albatross have long, narrow wings that aid their migration
eagles don’t migrate so have short broad wings which instead of endurance, give more lift, aid carrying pre and enhance speed
in low exercise intensive animals there is a higher/lower concentration of fatty acids than in high exercise intensity animals. what is the exception to this trend
higher
migrating animals are an exception - they utilise FA at high exercise intensities
why is it beneficial that migrating animal can utilise FA
they are a highly accessible and easy to mobilise food source
how does the semipalmated sandpiper double its body mass before migration to south America
it feeds on amphipods which have high N3 FA. N3 FA have a natural doping effect by binding with a TF that regulates a gene which increases FA metabolism. this means they can utilise FA at a higher rate than normal
how did humans impact passenger pigeon migration
passenger pigeons used to migrate on mass which made them vulnerable to hunting - they went extinct in the 1920s due to human pressures
how do humans target American bison for meat and fur
the bison migrate in very large number which makes them easy targets
when are fish particularly vulnerable to overfishing
when they aggregate to spawn
what is affecting nocturnal migrants
they use natural light to navigate but are being disorientated by artificial lights which is leading them to urban areas where there mat not be the correct resources/habitat
which animals are particularly affected by artificial light
hatching sea turtles - they use moonlight on the sea t orient themselves but light from coastal development means they often go the wrong way
how are we trying to prevent artificial light disorientation
hotels and other coastal developments are turning their lights off at night or using red LEDs to prevent disorientation
how is climate change affecting migration
the date at which vegetation and insects appear is changing due to changes in temperature e.g. deer we learnt about in 1st year
what appears to be the best way to protect a resource
to keep it away from humans
what is the tragedy of the commons
without regulation, individuals will exploit a shared resource to depletion, contrary to the common good of other users e.g. fishing
this gives short term individual gains but long term shared losses
why is climate change increasing the exploitation of the arctic ocean
because more ice is melting due to warming temperatures from climate change, this is making the ocean more accessible and easier to overexploit
what are the 3 governmental ways in which we can manage the environment
species based management
community based management
ecosystem based management
what is species based management
this focuses on individual species, typically on large, charismatic species
however the whole ecosystem needs to be considered as the species will depend on other resources and habitats
what is community based management
the community manages a species that is important to the local economy. this benefits the community and the wider ecosystem and is common in indigenous communities, however, it is very difficult to scale up
what is ecosystem based management
this is the most international approach and tris to manage the whole ecosystem through spatial planning
this requires effective legislation too identify how to manage resources
what does the UN convention on the law of the seas provide
legislation for management of resources in the marine environment
briefly outline how a law is made
- international agreement is made
- this is put to legislation
- this is proposed to the public then made into a law or not
how are the government informed of the scientific background necessary to make laws
environmental consultants advise the government
e.g. Scottish natural heritage and natural England
what is Natura 2000
it protects 18% of EU territory covering 26,000 terrestrial and marine sites and >1000endangered species. these areas have natural and cultural value
what are internal waters
waters inside a country’s terrestrial boundaries e.g. rivers and lakes
what are territorial waters
the seas around the coastline within a stated distance of the shore
what is an exclusive economic zone
a zone in an area of sea that a nation has special rights over
what are high seas
they are beyond the exclusive economic zone and have no national jurisdiction or laws
international bodies are trying to induce regulation policies for these areas
what are mpas designated by
identification based on the presence of key features
prioritisation based on the qualities of these features
assessment of the scale needed to maintain integrity
assessment of the ability to effectively manage features
what are the difficulties in designation of an mpa
it is often hard to find baseline data, there is insufficient data to nominate sites and these often conflict users
e.g. industry and environmentalists often clash
what is care
a protected space must be connected, adequate, representative, efficient
give a list of different types of pollution
sewage oil noise plastics toxic chemicals/metals agricultural run-off
what are the economics of why we use plastics
they are relatively cheap to manufacture and can be easily transported compared to other products such as glass
plastic is lighter than glass
plastics are strong, durable and safe - less likely to be damaged in transit
extension of shelf life of foods
what are plastics made from
they are made from monomers which are single molecules linked together to form polymers
give some examples of monomers
amino acids
nucleotides
fatty acids
monosaccharides
are monomers strong
no but when linked as polymers they are very strong
he are most polymers made
by dehydration condensation
how are most polymers disassembled
by hydrolysis
give examples of natural polymers
proteins, DNA
give examples of synthetic polymers
plastics
what are nurdles
very small pellets of plastic which serve as raw material in the manufacture of plastics - nurdles are heated with different elements in order to make different types of plastic
which plastic is almost impossible to recycle
polystyrene
what are the different sizes of plastic
microplastic - >5mm
microplastic <5mm
what are primary plastics
the whole item the original plastic product
what are secondary plastics
little pieces derived from the breakdown of primary plastics
give 4 ways that plastics can get into our oceans
intentional waste disposal at sea
accidental spillage of containers
unintentional (careless) disposal
run off from land and rivers
give specific examples of how plastics get into the ocean
nurdles lost in transit - spillage directly into sea or washed from land
washing clothes - most clothes are made of plastics - fibres from our clothes get taken into the sewage systems and can end up in the ocean
the closer beaches are to a higher density of people the more plastic is found in the ………..
sediment
give examples of what can happen to plastics once they are in the ocean
they can end up buried in the sediment
photodegradation - with VB exposure plastic break down into smaller fragments but they don’t disappear
they can be swept by the current into garbage packs
how do plastics affect sediment worms
worms ingest sediment for nutrients and end up ingesting plastics buried in the sediment
what are biological problems with plastics
ingestion - juvenile albatross cannot regurgitate plastics like adults so often die from blockages
entanglement - turtles get trapped and plastics can physically restrict growth - whales can get tangled and be unable to come to the surface to breath due to being weighed down
invasive species - barnacles reproduce and colonize on floating plastics and carry viruses and other pathogens
biomagnification - magnification through levels of the food chain
toxic materials - nurdles attract harmful toxins to their surface which don’t break down
what are some of the negative effects of ingested plastics
false satiation - the animal stops feeding because it thinks they are full
suffocation and physical blockages
weakened condition/hormonal disruption - reduced reproductive success and offspring size
gills - when water is passed over gills to breathe, microplastics can block the gills, reducing O2 intake causing suffocation
what are some solutions to plastic pollution
biodegradable plastics can be used - they still take a long time to break down - they are made from natural polymers that break down and integrate into the environment
better washing machines - filter out synthetic fibres and higher efficiency waste water system
the amount of plastic needs to be reduced - by education, beach cleans, recycling, legislation
list some plastic bans in place and proposed bans
microbeads
5p carrier bag
EU directive to ban some single use plastics by 2021
what is an ecosystem
the biological community that occurs in some locale and the physical, climatological and chemical conditions that make up its non-living/abiotic environment
list some abiotic components of an ecosystem
temp precipitation soil and water chemistry substrate type salinity sunlight
list some biotic components of an ecosystem
primary product herbivores carnivores omnivores detritivores
list some abiotic factors of coastal ecosystems
surf zone beach dunes chemical environment nutrient availability organic matter salinity pH infrastructure roads buildings utilities
what are some biotic factors of a coastal ecosystem
fish insects shellfish birds racoons humans
what can happen to an ecosystem if interactions between abiotic and biotic factors are broken
it can be disrupted
what are ecosystem functions
the primary ecosystem processes of capturing, storing and transferring energy, CO2, nutrients and water
the capacity of the ecosystem to carry out the primary ecosystem processes
all ecosystem functions except from ……….. are referred to as cycles
energy transfer
which of the ecosystem functions will be affected by extinction of bees
energy, nutrient and CO2 transfer
which processes are involved in each of the ecosystem functions
energy transfer - nutrient uptake/release
nutrient transfer - decomposition
water transfer - water uptake/evapotranspiration
CO2 transfer - photosynthesis, herbivory/carnivory, pollination, predation/parasitism/pathogen attack, other species interactions, response to disturbance
describe energy transfer through trophic levels
energy is passed from one trophic level to the next but not all energy is passed on, about 90% is lost (a lot of the energy is lost as heat and some of the energy is used by the organism e.g. for growth)
why is energy transfer not cyclic like the other ecosystem functions
energy comes from the sun and is progressively lost going up the trophic levels
describe what happens when an ecosystem is disrupted
ecosystem processes become disrupted and this has a knock on effect to ecosystem functions and ecosystem goods and services
what are ecosystem goods and services
the range of benefits that the ecosystem provide humanity with
why is valuation of ecosystems a good incentive to preserve natural environments
because people will protect the environment id they know they will benefit from it
what are supporting services
processes that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services: nutrient dispersal and cycling, seed dispersal, primary production
any processes carried out by ecosystems - they support all goods/services that the ecosystem provides
what are provisioning services or goods
the goods obtained from the ecosystem
what are regulating services
benefits obtained from the regulation if ecosystem processes
what are cultural services
nonmaterial benefits that people obtain form ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation and aesthetic experiences
give examples of some goods (provisional services)
foods water and minerals energy raw materials genetic resources medical resources ornamental resources
how are plants used by humanity
food
medicines and therapeutics
industry
give examples of regulating services
regulating climate maintaining hydrological cycles cleansing water and air maintaining composition of atmosphere pollinating plants generating and maintaining soils storing and cycling essential nutrients absorbing and detoxifying nutrients
give examples of cultural services
heritage values and cultural identity spiritual services inspiration aesthetic appreciation recreation and tourism scientific research discovery
……..…. ………… are the basis which supports the provision services (goods), the regulating services and the cultural services
support services
give examples of ecosystem services in the wetlands
provisioning - agriculture, fresh water supply, food source, grazing area
regulating - flood protection, river flow regulation, improvement of water quality, nutrient cycling and sediment retention
cultural - ecotourism, aesthetic, spiritual
supporting - biodiversity, carbon sequestration and storage, groundwater recharge
why are pollinating service important
high global value to agriculture
central role in ecosystem functioning
what do poisidonia meadows provide
dredging so vulnerable to storm
substrate stabilization
protection of shallow coasts
shelter for fish schools
what do mangroves provide
shrimp agriculture dredged protection form tsunamis wood shelter for fish school cycling of terrestrial run off high food production per hectare
what do kelp forests and coral reefs provide
amongst the most productive ecosystems in the world
commercial and recreational fisheries
tourist attraction
protection of coasts
list some ocean ecosystem services
phytoplankton absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere and together with sunlight and nutrients produced biomass through photosynthesis. oceans have absorbed 30-50% of CO2 produced by fossil fuel burning. carbon is transported from the ocean surface to the deep ocean
what do we do with monetized ecosystem services
we should feed them into policy making and local management of natural resources
what is an ecosystem assessment
the means of evaluating different aspects of the ecosystem health and the delivery of goods and services
what did the MA 2005 report show
2/3 of ecosystem services are in decline or are threatened
how does ecological restoration affect the ecosystem
increases biodiversity and ecosystem services but they are still lower than reference ecosystems
