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FTIB > genes to ecosystems > Flashcards

genes to ecosystems Flashcards

1
Q

where are shallow water and coral ecosystems distributed

A

around the tropics

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2
Q

what is the estimation of the total number of marine species and what proportion of these are coral species

A

1.5 million - 50% of which are coral species

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3
Q

why do Scottish corals cope better than tropical corals

A

they are not as sensitive to water temperature fluctuation

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4
Q

ecosystems are in a constant state of …………….

A

flux

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5
Q

what are the steps of reef radiations in the cenzoic

A
  1. mass extinction
  2. post extinction time of anoxia and changes in sea water chemistry – coral and reef gap
  3. stony corals present in shallow water carbonates but not as reef builders - reef recovery
  4. adaptive radiation
  5. reef extinction
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6
Q

what is adaptive radiation

A

when organisms diversify rapidly from and ancestral species

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7
Q

what do major coral extinction events correspond to

A

rapid cataclysmic environmental changes

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8
Q

where do corals live

A

in shallow warm water usually between late 20-late 30 C

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9
Q

what is the temperature of corals usually when they are bleaching

A

late 30s

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10
Q

describe the nutritional content of waters that are undergoing coral bleaching

A

nutrient poor with poor oxygen content

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11
Q

what are corals and what do they feed on

A

cnidarians and they feed on zoo plankton

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12
Q

what organism have coral formed a facultative endosymbiotic relationship with and what do they provide them with

A

zooxanthellae dinoflagellate - they provide coral with vital additional nutrients
90% of all algal nutrients are used by coral including 2 essential amino acids

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13
Q

what is facultative endosymbiosis

A

endosymbiotic - when an organisms lives inside another

facultative - can survive without the relationship for short periods of time

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14
Q

how do algae and coral benefit from the endosymbiotic relationship

A

algae get a nutrient rich stable refuge

coral get food

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15
Q

are zooxanthellae and coral showing specificity in their relationship

A

yes - zooxanthellae clades are specific to particular coral families

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16
Q

is the zooxanthellae and coral relationship always mutualistic

A

no it can turn parasitic - coral bleaching

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17
Q

what is important to note about coral polyps

A

each polyp is an individual organ

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18
Q

where are the algal dinoflagellates found in the coral

A

they are found in the gastrodermis of the tentacles of coral polyps

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19
Q

what happens when coral bleaching occurs

A
  1. when the dinoflagellates living inside the coral get hot (due to climate change) their photosystems start working too fast and produce ROS which cause damage
  2. in response, the corals exocytose the symbiont (dinoflagellates) and the coral bleaches as a result
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20
Q

what kind of damage do the ROS produced by dinoflagellates cause

A

oxidative damage
DNA damage
cell death

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21
Q

give some examples of environmental stresses that can contribute to causing coral bleaching

A
  1. CO2 emissions and climate change - sea surface temperatures increase
  2. ozone depletion - increased solar irradiance
  3. deforestation
    - silt deposition (granule between sand and clay) - can cause anoxia by blanketing corals and preventing them from photosynthesising
    - fertilizer run off - can cause algal blooms to grow which use oxygen and cause coral anoxia
  4. overfishing
    - prey overabundance - the prey use up a lot of oxygen which causes coral anoxia
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22
Q

what is anoxia

A

lack of oxygen

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23
Q

mutualistic relationship of coral and algae maintains the ……….

A

ecosystem

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24
Q

the relationship between coral and algae can become tempestuous, what does this mean

A

it s no longer mutualistic - it turns parasitic

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25
Q

what does assigning value to ecosystem services provide

A

it acts as a motivational tool to encourage its conservation

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26
Q

what are services that the marine ecosystem provides

A 
habitat for fisheries 
tourism 
biodiversity 
coastal protection carbon sinks - lots of carbon fixation occurs in coral reefs - corals store carbon in their exoskeletons 
medicine and drug discovery
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27
Q

why is monetizing ecosystems services important

A

it is an important means for ecologists and conservation biologists to engage with government and industry

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28
Q

what is an mpa and what does it provide

A

it is a marine protected area which can provide conservation status and prevent physical damage to reefs and associated animal and plant communities

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29
Q

what percentage of the ocean is no take

A

0.5%

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30
Q

what percentage of the ocean is protected

A

4%

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31
Q

can we fish in mpas and no take areas

A

we can still fish in mpas but not in no take areas

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32
Q

what 2 problems does climate change cause in association with coral bleaching

A

increased climate change

  • increased water temperature
  • increased CO2 - causes acidification - exoskeletons are made from calcium carbonate - calcium carbonate dissolves in acid making it difficult for coral to deposit carbon skeletons
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33
Q

are changes in the environment outpacing potential for adaptation and resilience

A

possibly or we are heading in that direction anyway

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34
Q

which has a higher proportion of protected areas, marine or terrestrial

A

terrestrial

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35
Q

when talking about pattern and process in an evolutionary context what do we mean

A

the pattern we see are the changes in the fossil record over time - evolution, and the process is natural selection

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36
Q

we can infer ancestry through ………….

A

homology

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37
Q

give an example of homology

A

pakicetus, pig and deer all have the same ankle homology

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38
Q

what results in the sudden adaptive radiation of whales t

A

an ecological opportunity was presented in the shallow equatorial Tekys ocean which drove natural selection of those that could exploit the nutrient rich environment
terrestrial mammals –> whales

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39
Q

natural selection drive ………….

A

evolutionary change

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40
Q

what evidence tells us that change is happening

A

changes overtime in the fossil and gene record and homologies

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41
Q

what model best fits the evolution contained by evidence

A

natural selection

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42
Q

what were the 6 proposed theories of natural selection before darwins theory came about - indicate which ones were scientifically based and which were religiously based

A

lamarckianism - science - lose unrequired characteristics - acquired traits are heritable
catastrophism - science - series of catastrophic events defines the fossil record
scalae naturae - religion
mutationalism - science - species emerge in large jumps
orthogenesis - religion
theistic - religion

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43
Q

every species is fertile enough that if all species survived and produced offspring then the population would grow - why is it that populations are mainly stable in terms of size then

A

despite periodic fluctuations, populations remain roughly the same size even though there is capacity to grow rapidly
this is because the environment is limited

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44
Q

describe darwins theory of natural selection

A

resources are limited and stay relatively stable over time
a struggle for survival ensues
individuals in a population may vary and much of this variation is heritable
individuals less suited to the environment are less likely to survive and reproduce, whereas those more suited to the environment are more likely to survive and reproduce

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45
Q

variations accumulate over time to form …….. ………..

A

new species

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46
Q

what did mendel study

A

inheritance of phenotypic traits by crossing peas

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47
Q

which two rules did mendel develop

A
  1. law of segregation

2. law of independent assortment

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48
Q

what is the law of segregation

A

2 alleles in a pair segregate into different gametes during meiosis

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49
Q

what is the law of independent assortment

A

random orientation of pairs of homologous chromosomes at metaphase plate of meiosis 1

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50
Q

does selection act upon phenotypes or genotypes

A

it acts on phenotypes and these phenotypes are determined by the genotype

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51
Q

what are the 4 different types of phenotype distribution

A

normal distribution
stabilising/purifying selection
directional selection
disruptive selection

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52
Q

what is normal distribution

A

there is not selection pressure - we see a normal bell curve

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53
Q

what is stabilising/purifying selection

A

selection against extreme trait values with phenotypic variation lost from the population - the mean trait value stays the same

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54
Q

what is directional selection

A

selection against mean trait values - mean trait value moves in response to the direction/intensity of the selection pressure

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55
Q

what is disruptive selection

A

selection against the mean trait- results in multi model trait distribution - 2 humps

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56
Q

what is heritability denoted as in the breeders equation

A

h^2

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57
Q

what is the heritability of a given trait defined as

A

the ratio of the genetic variation to the total phenotypic variation

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58
Q

what is phenotypic plasticity

A

variability against the same genetic background - environment matters - it can be difficult to disentangle environmental and genetic influences on phenotypic variation

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59
Q

what is the heritability equation

A

h^2=Vg/Vp

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60
Q

how can we directly measure heritability

A

we can look at how well trait values correlate between populations - how much do we look like our parents
look at graphs of parental trait vs F2 trait - the gradient of the line is the heritability - the closer to 1 the gradient the stronger the heritability

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61
Q

the greater/weaker the heritability of a trait, the faster a species can respond to a selective pressure

A

greater

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62
Q

what is the breeders equation

A 
R=h^2s
evolutionary response (change in the phenotype between generations) = heritability (transmissibility of a phenotype) x selection difference (change in phenotype due to selection)
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63
Q

given that h^2 = 1 and G1 before selection was 4m and G1 after selection was 4.5m what is R (the evolutionary response)

A 
R= h^2 x S = 1 x 0.5 = 0.5
s = 4.5 - 4
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64
Q

some characteristics of sexually dimorphic species could not readily be explained by ……….. …………

A

natural selection

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65
Q

what are the two methods of sexual selection

A

Intrasexual - competition between member of the same sex to access mates
intersexual selection - members of one sex choose members of the other sex

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66
Q

if male reproductive success is more variable than females what does this indicate

A

males are competing for females - strong sexual selection on males

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67
Q

if male and female reproductive success is roughly the same what does this indicate

A

there is little competition - low sexual selection

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68
Q

If female reproductive success is more variable than males what does this indicate

A

females compete for males - strong sexual selection on the females

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69
Q

what suggest that humans and apes are related

A

homology

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70
Q

what are the homologies between apes and humans

A

large brains, no tail, erect posture, flexibility of hips, ankle, wrist, thumb - all of which have very similar structure

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71
Q

what can we use to determine phylogenetic tree relationships

A

fossil evidence

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72
Q

how is mitochondrial DNA inherited

A

it is passed on from females to their children and would die out if someone doesn’t have nay children or if the mother only has sons

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73
Q

how are y chromosomes inherited

A

they are passed from father to son and die out when a father only has daughters or has no children

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74
Q

going back each generation what happens to the amount of inherited nuclear DNA

A

for every generation you go back, the shared nuclear DNA halves

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75
Q

what I a molecular clock

A

technique that uses the mutation rate of biomolecules to deduce the time in history when 2 or more life forms diverged

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76
Q

what do we need to know to estimate how old individuals are in a lineage

A

generation time and mutation rate

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77
Q

what types of DNA can we use to work out the molecular clock

A

nuclear/mitochondrial/Y chromosome

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78
Q

DNA differences reflect ………. ……….

A

evolutionary history

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79
Q

new devices can sequence DNA in as little as ………….

A

a few hours

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80
Q

what evidence suggests that Neanderthals and modern humans coexisted

A

fossils and other evidence

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81
Q

describe the timeline of Neanderthal and modern human existence

A

7 million ya - coalescence time of human and Neanderthal sequences
3 million ya - split of ancestral human and Neanderthal populations
2 million ya - earliest known atomically modern humans
40, 000 ya - earliest modern humans in Europe
30, 000 ya - most recent known Neanderthal remains (extinction)

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82
Q

provide an example of hoe a body can be preserved so that it can still be sequenced a long time after death

A

frozen - decay happens much more slowly

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83
Q

90% of human variation predates what

A

leaving Africa

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84
Q

why is variation larger in 300000 chimps than 7 billion humans

A

chimps are more genetically variable than humans. the chimp population has decreased and is now relatively stable. the population still retains its genetic variability
human population still reflects a much smaller population because it has grown so fast and genetic variability has not caught up

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85
Q

within the UK population do we see a lot of genetic differences

A

yes there are subtle differences between different areas of the UK but there are more parts of the genome that are the same than different

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86
Q

what is the most isolated human population on earth

A

Tristan de cuhna

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87
Q

the most recent population of Tristan de cuhna was 264 - what did this population descend from

A

8 males and 7 females

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88
Q

what caused the population to leave the island

A

a volcano erupted and the population fled to south Hampton where they were studied from a health point of view

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89
Q

what did they find when they studied the Tristan de cuhna

A

they found that every sibling were cousins to each other
the y chromosome fell into 2 groups - south western Europe and north western Europe
there were 9 y chromosome haplotypes found

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90
Q

what was found in terms of asthma in the Tristan de cuhna population

A

23% of the islanders have asthma and 57% show symptoms
it was suggested that 3 ancestors were asthmatic
it is unlikely that this is due to an environmental effect because the environment is very rural and fairly constant
the scientists were able to look for genetic risk factors for asthma by studying the population

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91
Q

due to the ……….. effect, islanders are likely to share the same pre-disposition genes

A

founder

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92
Q

give an example were certain things attract people of certain ethnicities

A

100m sprint attracts Jamaicans - 14.5% of sub 10 second 100m runners are from Jamaica

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93
Q

why are Jamaicans good at sprinting

A

slave trade - the fastest runners from west African descent are from countries most heavily involved in slave trade
culture - Jamaican culture puts its sprinters among the professional elite

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94
Q

how many key genes are there that influence sprinting ability

A

10

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95
Q

what is the main gene that influences sprinting ability

A

alpha-actn3 - if you have the null mutant you won’t be a world class sprinter - no top power athletes have the null allele - the product of the gene is involved in actin cross linking in skeletal muscle

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96
Q

what are the point of evolutionary trees

A

they summarise evolution

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97
Q

what are alleles

A

different copies of the same gene

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98
Q

what is a species

A

a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding

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99
Q

what is a biological species

A

a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable fertile offspring

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100
Q

what is a morphological species

A

distinguishes a species by body shape and other structural features

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101
Q

what is the ecological species concept

A

defines a species in terms of its ecological niche, the sum of how members of a species interact with the non living and living parts of the environment

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102
Q

what is allopatric speciation

A

speciation resulting from an external geographical barrier

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103
Q

what is the allopatric founder effect

A

when a small population becomes isolated and undergoes rapid evolution due to non-random sample of genes, different environment etc. the gene pool is no longer representative of the previous total population so the sub population diverges

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104
Q

what is sympatric speciation

A

populations may differ in habitat, behaviour, adaptations, assertive mating causing natural selection and divergence

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105
Q

adaptive radiation

A

process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms. a large group species all descend from one ancestor e.g. glalpaegos finches

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106
Q

what is the difference in evolutionary trees between no random and random speciation

A

random speciation results in reasonably balanced evolutionary trees
non random speciation results in evolutionary trees with a lot more species on one side than the other - this large amount of speciation is adaptive radiation

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107
Q

what are possible causes of adaptive radiation

A 
key innovations (swim bladder, pharyngeal jaw)
environmental changes (new habitats)
ecological changes (new opportunities)
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108
Q

how can we quickly establish a species

A

genome sequencing - genes of individuals in the same species are very similar but genes of individuals in different species may show little to no overlap

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109
Q

what is the single most species rich vertebrate group

A

bony fish

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110
Q

what was the 3rd whole genome duplication

A

bony fish

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111
Q

why are bony fish buoyant

A

they have swim bladders

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112
Q

what are bony fish innovative jaw structures

A

protruding upper jaws

secondary jaws - pharyngeal jaws

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113
Q

what is a swim bladder

A

the equivalent to the human lung - the gas inside it gives the fish buoyancy

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114
Q

highlight the differences between sharks and piranhas

A

sharks are very streamline because they need to move constantly so that they don’t sink because they don’t have a swim bladder. the sharks need to be streamline so that their energy use is efficient
piranhas have swim bladders so can just stay still and not sink - they don’t need to be so streamline because they don’t have to move around so much

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115
Q

what is a kinetic skull

A

mammalian skulls are mostly fused bone and the lower jaw moves
many bony fish skulls have multiple moving parts

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116
Q

what are primitive jaws

A

no pucker - upper jaws don’t protrude

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117
Q

what are advanced jaws

A

deadly pucker - upper jaw bones protrude

118
Q

what can bony fish do with their jaws

A

detach them

119
Q

what are pharyngeal jaws

A

second set of jaws contained within the fishes throat and are distinct from the primary oral jaws. these fish have modified gill arches - the jaws help fish manipulate and swallow prey

120
Q

do all pharyngeal jaws have teeth

A

no some have teeth and some have protuberances

121
Q

what is insular/island giantism and dwarfism

A

a biological phenomenon on which the size of an animal isolated on an island increases dramatically or decreases dramatically in comparison to its mainland species

122
Q

what happens to small mainland species when isolated on an island

A

they evolve to be larger

123
Q

what happens to large mainland species when isolated on an island

A

they evolve to be smaller

124
Q

give examples of island giantisms

A

giant turtle

komodo dragon

125
Q

nearly all major phyla appear in ……….. ………….

A

Cambrian rocks

126
Q

what caused the Cambrian explosion

A

environmental changes - increase in oxygen levels, melting of snowball earth –> allowed more adaptation
developmental changes - the appearance of HOX genes which regulate segmentation in animals allowing for more complex body structures
ecological changes - evolution of eyes created a huge selection pressure and caused an arms race between predators and prey

127
Q

what is the 6th mass extinction and what is it caused by

A

the Anthropocene - caused by the rise of humans - seen in the loss of mega fauna e.g. dire wolves and woolly mammoths

128
Q

what is causing the extinction of mega fauna

A

humans hunting megaherbivores causing extinction of predators too
climate change - e.g. end of the ice age
disease form humans and/or associated animals
second order predation - humans kill the predators resulting in prey overabundance and collapse

129
Q

when humans arrive in a country, mega fauna plummets - in which country has this effect been less severe

A

Africa

130
Q

what has been a proposed method of bringing back woolly mammoths

A

we have frozen mammoths DNA
we could use indian elephants to bring back mammoths because they are very closely related
problem - elephants are very social animals and if the mammoth was brought back it wouldn’t be able to socialise

131
Q

extinct animals genes leave traces in their …………

A

descendants

132
Q

1-4% of DNA in Eurasians comes from …………..

A

Neanderthals

133
Q

what is our best estimate of the number of species on earth

A

8.7million give or take 1.3 million

134
Q

if discovery of a branch of species tails off what does this suggest

A

that there may not be many species left to find

135
Q

how can we estimate the number of species

A

we can constrict our estimate using the basic classification for life. the further up the classification the more certain we are of how much stuff there is in each level

136
Q

give the order of classification with increasing specificity

A 
domain 
kingdom 
phylum 
class
order
family
genus 
species
137
Q

what is GBIF

A

programme that is planning to digitise all specimens so that the info can be put on a map to show the geographical distributions

138
Q

why is the mapping of species idea biased

A

most of the info is collected from the USA and there are huge gaps of information
none of the data from Kenya comes from Kenya
the maps actually show where the knowledge of biodiversity is not biodiversity itself

139
Q

what is citizen science in biodiversity studies

A

when citizens can help collect diversity data bu this only happens in places with time and money
examples are iNaturalist and lifescanner

140
Q

what is the problem with the public’s perception of biodiversity

A

they only know about large animals and cute animals which actually present a minority and single celled organisms are the most abundant

141
Q

why were microbiologists not happy with the archaea species estimate in the ocean being 1

A

because there are so many archaea

142
Q

why is DNA sequencing useful for biodiversity studies

A

it is quick and creates a DNA based registry for a species

143
Q

what is DNA barcoding

A

when species are given a barcode index number instead of latin names - already 20,300 species have been sequenced in this way which is the same number previously achieved in 257 years

144
Q

how much of the DNA on earth have we sequenced

A

1x10-22% so the fraction of microbial diversity that we have sequenced is effectively 0

145
Q

what are the 3 levels of ecosystem organisation

A

individual organism
species/population
community

146
Q

what is a population

A

a group of individuals of the same species inhabiting the same area and functioning as a basic unit of a biotic community

147
Q

what is a community

A

an interacting group of various species in a common location
an assemblage of populations of plants, bacteria, animals and fungi that live together in an area and interact with each other

148
Q

what is an ecotype and provide an example

A

a genetically distinct population within a species that has adapted to environmental conditions
killer whale ecotypes

149
Q

how many killer whale ecotypes are there and do they interbreed

A

12 - they can breed and produce fertile offspring but they will only do so in captivity

150
Q

give examples of differences between whale ecotypes

A

small physical differences as well as different food preferences language, social structure and hunting behaviours

151
Q

what is primary succession

A

it occurs when organisms colonize an area of land devoid of life usually after a catastrophic natural event that leaves the land barren

152
Q

during primary succession what is the first thing to arrive

A

vegetation - in particular, fast growing species that supply many nutrients e.g. algae, fungi and simple plants such as lichen and mosses

153
Q

what arrives after initial vegetation during primary succession

A

a thin layer of soil build up so that more advanced plants such as grasses and ferns can grow

154
Q

what happens during primary succession after successful colonisation of plants

A

animals arrive

155
Q

what is secondary succession and how is it different to primary succession

A

secondary succession is growth after destruction of existing vegetation or replacing an established community with different plants and animals - different to primary succession because there is still remains of vegetation - the land isn’t completely devoid of life
in secondary succession if you remove the first layer of vegetation there is nutrient rich soil underneath where as in primary succession the land is bare
secondary ecological succession occurs where there is already primary vegetation

156
Q

what events can lead to secondary succession

A

fire

157
Q

do most ecological changes occur as primary or secondary succession

A

secondary

158
Q

most biological communities are in a constant state of ……..…… succession

A

secondary

159
Q

secondary succession is gradual and is always moving towards …………. ………..

A

climax community

160
Q

give examples that can set back the process of succession

A

disturbances like flooding or wildfires or man caused events like logging

161
Q

what is climax community

A

once the community has reached a relatively stable state through ecological succession

162
Q

what are intermediate stages of ecological succession

A

the stages between ecological succession and the climax community

163
Q

what are the 7 stages of forest succession over time

A
  1. disturbance
  2. bare rock
  3. mosses/grasses
  4. grasses/perennials
  5. woody pioneering
  6. fast growing trees
  7. climax forest
    - larger long lived trees
164
Q

what happens to biodiversity, biomass and soil layer with ecological succession progression

A

they all increase

165
Q

what is succession

A

sequence of development of new vegetation from a sterile surface

166
Q

what are 5 key biological processes

A 
growth 
metabolism 
activity 
thermoregulation 
reproduction
167
Q

what is population survival dependent on

A

individual survival, reproduction and fitness

168
Q

what are density independent population processes

A

any influence on a population’s birth or death rates regardless of the population density

169
Q

what are examples of density independent factors

A

light, wind, salt, water, temp, fires, tornado, draught, pH

they are typically physical factors of the environment

170
Q

is the effect of density independent factors on one species the same for all species

A

not necessarily

171
Q

what are the negative effects of salt

A

desiccates cells, toxic

172
Q

what are the negative effects of water

A

desiccates cells, reduces photosynthesis

173
Q

what are the negative effects of temperature

A

damage from freezing, water loss

174
Q

what are the negative effects of pH

A

damage from toxic compounds, changes gas exchange

175
Q

what is migration

A

the regular and directional movement of organisms between 2 locations

176
Q

why do organisms migrate

A
  1. to find resources
  2. to find better conditions
  3. reducing competition
  4. avoid inbreeding depression
177
Q

what are the risks of migration

A

energy cost is generally large
increased risk of predation possibly
lack of settlement

178
Q

what are density dependent population processes

A

they occur when population growth rates are regulated by the density of a population - the factors either increase or decrease the birth and death rates of the population in accordance with their density

179
Q

when do density dependent factors change affect

A

when the density of the population changes the factors can have different effects

180
Q

what is the carrying capacity

A

the largest population size that can be sustained indefinitely with the available resources

181
Q

give examples of density dependent factors

A

predation, parasitism, disease and competition

182
Q

what is competition

A

negative affects by one organism consuming or controlling access to a limited resource

183
Q

what are the 2 possible outcomes of competition

A

co-existence - ecological differentiation

elimination - dominant species outcompetes others

184
Q

what makes a species a good competitor

A

broad distribution and abundance

185
Q

what is competition based on

A

success of traits and stress/distribution trade off

186
Q

give an example of competition

A

between barnacles - they both adopt their realised niches to avoid competition - co-existence

187
Q

what is a fundamental niche

A

the set of resources with which organisms could survive - adopted in the absence of competition

188
Q

what is a realised niche

A

the set of resources with which the organism actually survives - adopted during competition - subset of the fundamental niche

189
Q

give some examples of invasive plants

A

American skunk cabbage
Himalayan balsam
giant hogweed (causes blister on skin)
rhododendron

190
Q

give some examples of invasive animals

A 
American mink 
American signal crayfish 
killer shrimp
harlequin ladybird 
carpet sea squirt
191
Q

in a larger/smaller population there is a greater chance that parasites will spread

A

larger

192
Q

what is crypotocotyl lingua

A

a parasite that spends part of its life in periwinkles which are then eaten by gulls
the parasite goes through the gull’s GI tract and spreads back to periwinkles through faeces

193
Q

the greater the habitat and niches the greater/lower the biodiversity

A

greater

194
Q

what are darwins finches a good example of

A

speciation to avoid competition

195
Q

give 2 examples of mutualistic relationship

A

zooxanthellae and coral

hippo and birds

196
Q

what is resource availability dependent on

A

plant communities and their stage in succession

197
Q

what factors affect population growth

A

resource availability

density dependent factors

198
Q

give 5 examples of migration

A
  1. monarch butterflies - spend summer in north America feeding on millwead. when this decrease they migrate to mexico in autumn. they must follow the land so they can refuel because they can’t store energy
  2. leatherback turtles - travel to feed in the open ocean then migrate back to their nesting beach
  3. zebra and wildebeest - migrate to river and lakes in the dry season where there is more vegetation
  4. arctic tern spend summer in arctic where it breeds then migrates to Antarctica to follow its food source
  5. motnague harriet - migrates from Europe to Africa following lad to avoid storms
199
Q

what animal’s migration patterns change at different stages in life

A

tuna

200
Q

how are zebra and wildebeest migration patterns being interrupted

A

fencing from farming

201
Q

which other animal travels from north to south latitudes to follow a food source

A

bar-tailed goduit

202
Q

what are the 3 types of migration

A

breeding - plentiful resources and predation protection
tracking - predators following prey migration
refuge - avoidance of bad conditions

203
Q

list some advantages of migration

A

exploit new resources seasonally
protection of vulnerable young
avoid inbreeding depression
reduce competition

204
Q

list some risks of migration

A 
bad weather 
lack of emergency stops 
predation 
disorientation 
potential lack of final stops
205
Q

what are 4 ways we can track migration

A

point counts - counting the number of individuals coming in - no indication of where they have come from
natural markings - natural marking and ringing can ID individuals across the globe
radar - can track bird density - also weather patterns
satellite - can track individuals by attaching a satellite transmitter - gives exact location - continuous tracking rather then single point

206
Q

how have some butterflies adapted to confer an advantage for migration

A

butterflies with greater wing span are able to carry out longer migration

207
Q

how is wing size adapted for migration

A

albatross have long, narrow wings that aid their migration
eagles don’t migrate so have short broad wings which instead of endurance, give more lift, aid carrying pre and enhance speed

208
Q

in low exercise intensive animals there is a higher/lower concentration of fatty acids than in high exercise intensity animals. what is the exception to this trend

A

higher

migrating animals are an exception - they utilise FA at high exercise intensities

209
Q

why is it beneficial that migrating animal can utilise FA

A

they are a highly accessible and easy to mobilise food source

210
Q

how does the semipalmated sandpiper double its body mass before migration to south America

A

it feeds on amphipods which have high N3 FA. N3 FA have a natural doping effect by binding with a TF that regulates a gene which increases FA metabolism. this means they can utilise FA at a higher rate than normal

211
Q

how did humans impact passenger pigeon migration

A

passenger pigeons used to migrate on mass which made them vulnerable to hunting - they went extinct in the 1920s due to human pressures

212
Q

how do humans target American bison for meat and fur

A

the bison migrate in very large number which makes them easy targets

213
Q

when are fish particularly vulnerable to overfishing

A

when they aggregate to spawn

214
Q

what is affecting nocturnal migrants

A

they use natural light to navigate but are being disorientated by artificial lights which is leading them to urban areas where there mat not be the correct resources/habitat

215
Q

which animals are particularly affected by artificial light

A

hatching sea turtles - they use moonlight on the sea t orient themselves but light from coastal development means they often go the wrong way

216
Q

how are we trying to prevent artificial light disorientation

A

hotels and other coastal developments are turning their lights off at night or using red LEDs to prevent disorientation

217
Q

how is climate change affecting migration

A

the date at which vegetation and insects appear is changing due to changes in temperature e.g. deer we learnt about in 1st year

218
Q

what appears to be the best way to protect a resource

A

to keep it away from humans

219
Q

what is the tragedy of the commons

A

without regulation, individuals will exploit a shared resource to depletion, contrary to the common good of other users e.g. fishing
this gives short term individual gains but long term shared losses

220
Q

why is climate change increasing the exploitation of the arctic ocean

A

because more ice is melting due to warming temperatures from climate change, this is making the ocean more accessible and easier to overexploit

221
Q

what are the 3 governmental ways in which we can manage the environment

A

species based management
community based management
ecosystem based management

222
Q

what is species based management

A

this focuses on individual species, typically on large, charismatic species
however the whole ecosystem needs to be considered as the species will depend on other resources and habitats

223
Q

what is community based management

A

the community manages a species that is important to the local economy. this benefits the community and the wider ecosystem and is common in indigenous communities, however, it is very difficult to scale up

224
Q

what is ecosystem based management

A

this is the most international approach and tris to manage the whole ecosystem through spatial planning
this requires effective legislation too identify how to manage resources

225
Q

what does the UN convention on the law of the seas provide

A

legislation for management of resources in the marine environment

226
Q

briefly outline how a law is made

A
  1. international agreement is made
  2. this is put to legislation
  3. this is proposed to the public then made into a law or not
227
Q

how are the government informed of the scientific background necessary to make laws

A

environmental consultants advise the government

e.g. Scottish natural heritage and natural England

228
Q

what is Natura 2000

A

it protects 18% of EU territory covering 26,000 terrestrial and marine sites and >1000endangered species. these areas have natural and cultural value

229
Q

what are internal waters

A

waters inside a country’s terrestrial boundaries e.g. rivers and lakes

230
Q

what are territorial waters

A

the seas around the coastline within a stated distance of the shore

231
Q

what is an exclusive economic zone

A

a zone in an area of sea that a nation has special rights over

232
Q

what are high seas

A

they are beyond the exclusive economic zone and have no national jurisdiction or laws
international bodies are trying to induce regulation policies for these areas

233
Q

what are mpas designated by

A

identification based on the presence of key features
prioritisation based on the qualities of these features
assessment of the scale needed to maintain integrity
assessment of the ability to effectively manage features

234
Q

what are the difficulties in designation of an mpa

A

it is often hard to find baseline data, there is insufficient data to nominate sites and these often conflict users
e.g. industry and environmentalists often clash

235
Q

what is care

A

a protected space must be connected, adequate, representative, efficient

236
Q

give a list of different types of pollution

A 
sewage 
oil 
noise 
plastics 
toxic chemicals/metals 
agricultural run-off
237
Q

what are the economics of why we use plastics

A

they are relatively cheap to manufacture and can be easily transported compared to other products such as glass
plastic is lighter than glass
plastics are strong, durable and safe - less likely to be damaged in transit
extension of shelf life of foods

238
Q

what are plastics made from

A

they are made from monomers which are single molecules linked together to form polymers

239
Q

give some examples of monomers

A

amino acids
nucleotides
fatty acids
monosaccharides

240
Q

are monomers strong

A

no but when linked as polymers they are very strong

241
Q

he are most polymers made

A

by dehydration condensation

242
Q

how are most polymers disassembled

A

by hydrolysis

243
Q

give examples of natural polymers

A

proteins, DNA

244
Q

give examples of synthetic polymers

A

plastics

245
Q

what are nurdles

A

very small pellets of plastic which serve as raw material in the manufacture of plastics - nurdles are heated with different elements in order to make different types of plastic

246
Q

which plastic is almost impossible to recycle

A

polystyrene

247
Q

what are the different sizes of plastic

A

microplastic - >5mm

microplastic <5mm

248
Q

what are primary plastics

A

the whole item the original plastic product

249
Q

what are secondary plastics

A

little pieces derived from the breakdown of primary plastics

250
Q

give 4 ways that plastics can get into our oceans

A

intentional waste disposal at sea
accidental spillage of containers
unintentional (careless) disposal
run off from land and rivers

251
Q

give specific examples of how plastics get into the ocean

A

nurdles lost in transit - spillage directly into sea or washed from land
washing clothes - most clothes are made of plastics - fibres from our clothes get taken into the sewage systems and can end up in the ocean

252
Q

the closer beaches are to a higher density of people the more plastic is found in the ………..

A

sediment

253
Q

give examples of what can happen to plastics once they are in the ocean

A

they can end up buried in the sediment
photodegradation - with VB exposure plastic break down into smaller fragments but they don’t disappear
they can be swept by the current into garbage packs

254
Q

how do plastics affect sediment worms

A

worms ingest sediment for nutrients and end up ingesting plastics buried in the sediment

255
Q

what are biological problems with plastics

A

ingestion - juvenile albatross cannot regurgitate plastics like adults so often die from blockages
entanglement - turtles get trapped and plastics can physically restrict growth - whales can get tangled and be unable to come to the surface to breath due to being weighed down
invasive species - barnacles reproduce and colonize on floating plastics and carry viruses and other pathogens
biomagnification - magnification through levels of the food chain
toxic materials - nurdles attract harmful toxins to their surface which don’t break down

256
Q

what are some of the negative effects of ingested plastics

A

false satiation - the animal stops feeding because it thinks they are full
suffocation and physical blockages
weakened condition/hormonal disruption - reduced reproductive success and offspring size
gills - when water is passed over gills to breathe, microplastics can block the gills, reducing O2 intake causing suffocation

257
Q

what are some solutions to plastic pollution

A

biodegradable plastics can be used - they still take a long time to break down - they are made from natural polymers that break down and integrate into the environment
better washing machines - filter out synthetic fibres and higher efficiency waste water system
the amount of plastic needs to be reduced - by education, beach cleans, recycling, legislation

258
Q

list some plastic bans in place and proposed bans

A

microbeads
5p carrier bag
EU directive to ban some single use plastics by 2021

259
Q

what is an ecosystem

A

the biological community that occurs in some locale and the physical, climatological and chemical conditions that make up its non-living/abiotic environment

260
Q

list some abiotic components of an ecosystem

A 
temp 
precipitation 
soil and water chemistry 
substrate type 
salinity 
sunlight
261
Q

list some biotic components of an ecosystem

A 
primary product
herbivores 
carnivores 
omnivores 
detritivores
262
Q

list some abiotic factors of coastal ecosystems

A 
surf zone 
beach 
dunes 
chemical environment 
nutrient availability 
organic matter 
salinity 
pH 
infrastructure 
roads buildings 
utilities
263
Q

what are some biotic factors of a coastal ecosystem

A 
fish 
insects 
shellfish 
birds 
racoons 
humans
264
Q

what can happen to an ecosystem if interactions between abiotic and biotic factors are broken

A

it can be disrupted

265
Q

what are ecosystem functions

A

the primary ecosystem processes of capturing, storing and transferring energy, CO2, nutrients and water
the capacity of the ecosystem to carry out the primary ecosystem processes

266
Q

all ecosystem functions except from ……….. are referred to as cycles

A

energy transfer

267
Q

which of the ecosystem functions will be affected by extinction of bees

A

energy, nutrient and CO2 transfer

268
Q

which processes are involved in each of the ecosystem functions

A

energy transfer - nutrient uptake/release
nutrient transfer - decomposition
water transfer - water uptake/evapotranspiration
CO2 transfer - photosynthesis, herbivory/carnivory, pollination, predation/parasitism/pathogen attack, other species interactions, response to disturbance

269
Q

describe energy transfer through trophic levels

A

energy is passed from one trophic level to the next but not all energy is passed on, about 90% is lost (a lot of the energy is lost as heat and some of the energy is used by the organism e.g. for growth)

270
Q

why is energy transfer not cyclic like the other ecosystem functions

A

energy comes from the sun and is progressively lost going up the trophic levels

271
Q

describe what happens when an ecosystem is disrupted

A

ecosystem processes become disrupted and this has a knock on effect to ecosystem functions and ecosystem goods and services

272
Q

what are ecosystem goods and services

A

the range of benefits that the ecosystem provide humanity with

273
Q

why is valuation of ecosystems a good incentive to preserve natural environments

A

because people will protect the environment id they know they will benefit from it

274
Q

what are supporting services

A

processes that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services: nutrient dispersal and cycling, seed dispersal, primary production
any processes carried out by ecosystems - they support all goods/services that the ecosystem provides

275
Q

what are provisioning services or goods

A

the goods obtained from the ecosystem

276
Q

what are regulating services

A

benefits obtained from the regulation if ecosystem processes

277
Q

what are cultural services

A

nonmaterial benefits that people obtain form ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation and aesthetic experiences

278
Q

give examples of some goods (provisional services)

A 
foods 
water and minerals 
energy 
raw materials 
genetic resources 
medical resources 
ornamental resources
279
Q

how are plants used by humanity

A

food
medicines and therapeutics
industry

280
Q

give examples of regulating services

A 
regulating climate 
maintaining hydrological cycles 
cleansing water and air 
maintaining composition of atmosphere 
pollinating plants 
generating and maintaining soils  
storing and cycling essential nutrients 
absorbing and detoxifying nutrients
281
Q

give examples of cultural services

A 
heritage values and cultural identity 
spiritual services 
inspiration 
aesthetic appreciation 
recreation and tourism 
scientific research discovery
282
Q

……..…. ………… are the basis which supports the provision services (goods), the regulating services and the cultural services

A

support services

283
Q

give examples of ecosystem services in the wetlands

A

provisioning - agriculture, fresh water supply, food source, grazing area
regulating - flood protection, river flow regulation, improvement of water quality, nutrient cycling and sediment retention
cultural - ecotourism, aesthetic, spiritual
supporting - biodiversity, carbon sequestration and storage, groundwater recharge

284
Q

why are pollinating service important

A

high global value to agriculture

central role in ecosystem functioning

285
Q

what do poisidonia meadows provide

A

dredging so vulnerable to storm
substrate stabilization
protection of shallow coasts
shelter for fish schools

286
Q

what do mangroves provide

A 
shrimp agriculture dredged 
protection form tsunamis 
wood
shelter for fish school 
cycling of terrestrial run off 
high food production per hectare
287
Q

what do kelp forests and coral reefs provide

A

amongst the most productive ecosystems in the world
commercial and recreational fisheries
tourist attraction
protection of coasts

288
Q

list some ocean ecosystem services

A

phytoplankton absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere and together with sunlight and nutrients produced biomass through photosynthesis. oceans have absorbed 30-50% of CO2 produced by fossil fuel burning. carbon is transported from the ocean surface to the deep ocean

289
Q

what do we do with monetized ecosystem services

A

we should feed them into policy making and local management of natural resources

290
Q

what is an ecosystem assessment

A

the means of evaluating different aspects of the ecosystem health and the delivery of goods and services

291
Q

what did the MA 2005 report show

A

2/3 of ecosystem services are in decline or are threatened

292
Q

how does ecological restoration affect the ecosystem

A

increases biodiversity and ecosystem services but they are still lower than reference ecosystems

FTIB (6 decks)

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