Genes and Inheritance in Biology : Biology Flashcards
1
Q
Define Biology.
A
The scientific study of life.
2
Q
Define a Biologist
A
A scientist who studies living things within the natural world.
3
Q
Identify the characteristics of life
A
- organized
- requires energy
- maintains internal constancy
- reproduces, grows, develops
- evolves
4
Q
Define the Scientific study of life.
A
It covers wide-ranging topics from evolution to climate change to cancer research to infertility treatments to endangered species to biofuels to the history of life.
5
Q
Define Taxonomy.
A
Science of naming and classifying organisms based on known evolutionary relationships.
6
Q
What are the 3 domains?
A
Domain Bacteria, Domain Archaea and Domain Eukarya
7
Q
What are the 3 Kingdoms?
A
Kingdom Animalia, Kingdom Fungi and Kingdom Plantae
8
Q
Which taxonomic categories are the most and least inclusive?
A
Kingdom is the largest and most inclusive, while Species is the smallest and least inclusive.
9
Q
How do you properly write a taxonomic name?
A
Genus is followed by the species name, italicized and Genus only capitalized.
10
Q
Define Science. Why is it important?
A
Science is the method of seeking answers on the basis of observation & experiment. It’s important because it helps us understand the world around us.
11
Q
What type of mindset do you need in science?
A
Curiosity: ask questions
Open-Mind: consider all possibilities
Skepticism: don’t immediately believe
Humility: be able to admit when wrong
12
Q
What are the general assumptions of science?
A
Cause and Effect: Every in nature outcome has a source.
Consistency: If same condition is set up you will get the same results.
Repeatability: Regularly repeatable = more likely true
Materialism: effects in natural world all have natural causes
13
Q
What are the limitations of science?
A
- Science cannot explain everything
- Doesn’t say how to use knowledge
- Doesn’t use moral knowledge
- No conclusion about supernatural
14
Q
Define Scientific Method.
A
The process of asking questions and making observations to reach a conclusion of results.
15
Q
What are the steps of the Scientific Method?
A
- Make an observation and ask a question
- Formulate hypotheses
- Make predictions based on the hypothesis
- Experimentation
- Evaluation and interpretation of results
- Communicate results
16
Q
What are the attributes of science?
A
Science must be:
- Observable
- Testable
- Measurable
- Falsifiable
- Repeatable
- Objective
17
Q
Define Empirical Evidence.
A
Observable information using your 5 senses.
18
Q
Define Inductive Reasoning.
A
Search for general truths from specific observations.
19
Q
Define Independent Variable.
A
Variable that you change or manipulate.
20
Q
Define Dependent Variable.
A
Variable you observe or measure in response to the independent variable.
21
Q
Define Controlled Variable.
A
Variable you keep the same or constant throughout the experiment.
22
Q
Define Hypothesis.
A
A statement about whether a relationship exists between dependent and independent variables.
23
Q
Define Null Hypothesis.
A
States that there is NO relationship between independent and dependent variables.
- present tense
- a generalization
- never directional
24
Q
Define Alternate Hypothesis.
A
States that there is a relationship between independent and dependent variables.
25
Define Experimental Group.
Includes or receives the independent variable.
26
Define Control Group.
Lacks the independent variable and serves as your reference point.
27
Define Dependent Variable.
What you are measuring and will be the same for each group.
28
What does the p-value look like based off of the null?
p ≤ 0.05 → reject the null
p > 0.05 → fail to reject the null
29
What is the peer review process of an article?
1. Scientists study something
2. Scientists write about their results
3. Journal editor sends it out for peer review
4. Peer reviewers read the article and provide feedback
5. If standards met, published
30
Define Sample size.
Number of individuals or samples used in an experiment.
31
Define Variation in relation to samples.
Difference amongst samples.
32
Darwin's theory.
Repeatedly tested and provides a solid generalizable explanation of how adaptations in all organisms evolved.
33
Successful theories increase our understanding of?
1. Fundamental processes of nature
2. Rules by which nature operates
34
Define Scientific Literacy.
Ability to engage with science-related issues and ideas, as a reflective citizen.
35
Steps to becoming scientifically literate:
1. Identify the source
2. Determine relevance
3. Beware of grandiose claims (correlation vs. causation)
4. Research a group’s reputation
36
What is the best-least sources for researching science? Examples.
Is it reputable? Biased? Sensationalized?
Primary literature = peer-reviewed research articles.
Secondary literature = textbooks, news article, .gov/org, PBS, CNN
Tertiary literature = Facebook, blogs, websites
37
Why it is important for you to strive for scientific literacy in your personal and your public life?
Personal = diet, exercise, aging, disease
Public = voting, jury duty, watching news
38
Define Correlation.
A mutual relationship between two or more things.
39
Define Causation.
Relationship between cause and effect.
40
Define Pseudoscience.
Meaning fake science, pseudo=fake, an agenda is trying to be pushed. Try to capitalize on fears, emotions, sentiment.
41
Define Quackery.
Promotes the use/purchase of remedies despite having zero scientific validity.
42
How you can determine if science you see in the media is being accurately portrayed?
- They are unbiased
- Examples of actual studies
43
What makes something alive?
- Levels of organization
- Response to stimuli
- Inheritance & reproduction
- Adaptation (evolution)
- Growth & development
- Homeostasis
- Energy processing
44
What is the smallest stable unit of matter?
An atom.
45
A cell is made up of?
Atoms and Molecules.
46
What does the Nucleus contain?
Protons, Neutrons and outer shells containing Electrons.
47
A single Carbon makes how many bonds?
4 bonds.
48
Atoms bond to form? Define Molecules.
Molecules. Multiple atoms bonded together.
49
Define Macromolecules.
Large molecules.
- Carbohydrates
- Proteins
- DNA
50
What is the Mitochondria known as?
The power house.
51
What is the Cell Theory?
- All organisms are composed of one or more cells
- Cell = smallest living unit of organization
- Regulate and coordinate several processes
- Continuity of life depends on growth & division of cells
52
Characteristics of all cells.
- Plasma membrane surrounding cell
- Internal area that houses DNA
- Cytoplasm that contains organelles
53
What are the two main types of cells?
Eukaryotic cells and Prokaryotic cells.
- both have ribosomes for protein synthesis
54
Eukaryotic cell characteristics.
Have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
55
Prokaryotic cell characteristics.
Lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
56
Task of the Nucleus.
House DNA
57
Task of Endoplasmic reticulum.
Synthesis, folding, modification, and transport of proteins.
58
Task of Golgi Apparatus
Modify, sort, and ship proteins.
59
Task of Mitochondria
ATP production
60
Difference between Unicellular and Multicellular.
Unicellular has one cell that carries out all the function, while multicellular has multiple cells carrying out different functions.
61
Define Tissue.
A group of similar cells that perform a similar function.
62
1. Define Organ.
2. Define Organ System.
3. Define Organism.
1. Combo of 2+ different tissues performing common function.
2. Group of relates organs working together.
3. Individual living entity.
63
Define Population.
Organisms of same species occupying same area.
(Fish)
64
Define Community.
Populations of different species living in same area.
(Fish + Coral)
65
Define Ecosystem.
Biological community together with abiotic environment (energy flow and chemical cycling).
(Fish + Coral + Water + Sunlight)
66
Define Biosphere.
Collection of all ecosystems (includes land, water, and portions of atmosphere).
67
What are the responses to Stimuli and their definition?
Positive Response = Movement toward a stimulus.
Negative Response = Movement away from a stimulus.
68
All organisms reproduce and inherit biological info (DNA) from?
Their parents.
69
What are the Nucleotide base pairs?
A, T, C, G
70
Define Asexual Reproduction.
Single Parent. Daughter identical to parent.
71
Define Fission.
Separation of body into two new bodies.
72
Define Budding.
Organism develops from some generative anatomical point of the parent.
- Hydra
- Corals
73
Define Fragmentation.
Organism breaks into two or more fragments that develop into a new individual. (If a limb breaks they can grow it back)
- plants, corals, sponges and starfish
74
Define Parthenogenesis.
Reproduction without fertilization. (female gamete develops into new individual without fertilization by a male gamete)
- Aphids, Bees, Ants, some Lizards
75
Define Sexual Reproduction.
Two parents. Each parents contributes 1/2 of each gene.
76
Define Adaptation.
Adaptations (displayed phenotypically) enhance survival & reproductive potential.
- Environmental change
- Challenge of the "fittest"
77
All living things develop according to specific instructions coded by?
Genes.
- Genes direct cellular growth and development
- In this way, offspring resemble their parents
78
Define Homeostasis.
Maintenance of internal body conditions with a narrow range, despite environmental changes. (negative vs. positive feedback mechanisms)
79
Define Metabolism.
All chemical reactions that sustain cellular life.
80
Plant vs. Animal Metabolism.
- Plants convert solar energy from sunlight into chemical energy via photosynthesis.
- Animals must east to get energy which is broken down in their body from the plants and animals they eat.
81
Facts about species discovery.
- Estimated 10-100 million species on the planet
- Only 1.3 million have been described
- 99% of all organisms that have lived are now extinct (~50 billion species)
82
Who is Carolus Linnaeus?
Developed hierarchical classification scheme for organizing biodiversity.
83
What are the Domains of life?
Eukarya: Cells with nuclei.
Archaea: Single cells without nuclei.
Bacteria: Single cells without nuclei.
84
Define Extremophiles.
Halophiles (salt loving), thermophiles (heat loving), methanogens (methane producing)
85
Describe Ribosomes and their task.
Free floating in cytoplasm or attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum.
- Important for protein synthesis
86
Task of Cytoplasm
Protects cells from damage and holding components.
87
How is genetic information stored?
Carried in the sequence of Nucleotides in DNA
88
What is the double-helix that carries genetic information composed of?
Nucleotides, Sugar, Phosphate and a Base.
89
What are the complementary nucleotide base pairs?
Adenine (A) - Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C) - Guanine (G)
90
Define Chromosomes.
Thread-like structures composed of DNA and proteins stored in the nucleus.
91
How many pairs do human chromosomes come in?
They come in pairs. (2, 2n)
- One from your mother, one from your father.
92
Karyotype
An individual's collection of chromosomes.
93
How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have? How many total?
23 pairs, 46 total
94
If a person carries two of the same alleles vs a person who carried different alleles.
same = homozygous
different = heterozygous
95
Genes are made up of?
Two alleles, either dominant or recessive.
96
Define Genotype.
Organism’s underlying genetic makeup. (inherited)
97
Define Phenotype.
Observable characteristics.
98
Definition & Characteristics of Tay-Sachs disease.
Enzyme that breaks down fatty acids is absent, build up in brain.
- slowed development
- appears 6 months result in death at around 4
99
Characteristics of Sickle cell anemia.
- sickle cells die early
- shortage of healthy red blood cells
- oxygen shortage
100
List of simple dominant vs recessive traits.
- Hairline
- Dimples
- Ear lobe
- Colorblindness
- Hitchhiker's thumb
101
Describe a Punnett Square
On the left two GG or Gg and on the top two little Gg or gg. They make up GG, Gg and gg.
102
Where does DNA Replication occur?
In the Nucleus
103
Functions of:
1. DNA Helicase
2. RNA Primase
3. RNA primer
4. DNA polymerase
5. DNA ligase
1. Unwinds double-helix, break bonds
2. Builds RNA primer on strands
3. Binding site for replication
4. Adds daughter nucleotides on parents
5. Joins Okazaki fragments
104
How do you read DNA?
Always start reading 5' to 3', end 3' to 5'
- Given: 5’ CGCATGTAGCGA 3’
- Answer: 3’ GCGTACATCGCT 5’
105
Steps that take place during Transcription. (mRNA)
- Starts in Nucleus
- RNA binds to DNA strand, DNA unwinds
- mRNA is then created
Adenine (A) – Uracil (U)
Cytosine (C) – Guanine (G)
106
Steps that take place during Translation.
- mRNA transported to cytoplasm where it attaches to ribosomes
- mRNA attaches to a ribosome and a transfer RNA (tRNA)
- codons are created
107
Redundancy in the genetic code.
- Multiple codons code for the same amino acid
- 64 possible nucleotide combinations
- But only 20 possible amino acids
108
Define Mutation.
A change in the DNA sequence of an organism.
- Mutations may be passed onto next generation if produced in gametes.
- Not all mutations change an amino acid sequence.
109
Define Point Mutations.
Are neutral and do not alter phenotype. (due to redundancy)
110
What could errors in protein synthesis process cause?
- Cancer
- Birth defects
- Autoimmune disease
- Diabetes
- Deficiencies
111
What sometimes repairs small mutations?
Enzymes sometimes repair small mutations by placing correct nucleotides into position.
112
Down Syndrome
Extra chromosome, 21.
- 21st chromosome in either sperm or egg fails to separate
- developmental and intellectual delays
- 1 in 700 babies born in US per year
113
Turner Syndrome
- Female is born with only one X chromosome
- Symptoms include short stature, delayed puberty, infertility, heart defects, and learning disabilities
- One in 2,000 to 2,500 female babies born in US per year
114
Klinefelter Syndrome
- Male born with extra copy of the X sex chromosome
- Symptoms include low testosterone, less body hair, breast enlargement, produce little to no sperm
- 1 in 3,000 males born in US per year
115
Define Energy.
Ability to do work or make changes.
116
What are the forms of energy and their function?
Kinetic → energy of motion
Potential → stored energy
Chemical → potential energy stored within the chemical bonds of cells
117
What are the laws of thermodynamics?
1st law → energy cannot be created or destroyed. (only transferred or transformed)
2nd law → one useable form of energy cannot be completely converted to another useable form. (requires constant new inputs)
118
What are the metabolic reactions?
Reactants → substances that participate in a reaction (i.e., A and B)
Products → substances that form as a result of a reaction (i.e., C and D)
119
Define ATP.
Energy currency of a cell.
- cells use ATP when energy is required
- the more active an organism the more ATP required
- ATP not kept in large stores
120
Define Metabolic Pathways.
Series of reactions (assisted by enzymes) that proceed in an orderly, step-by-step manner.
121
Photosynthesis & Cellular Respiration process.
Photosynthesis: light energy + carbon dioxide + water -> glucose + oxygen
Cellular Respiration: Glucose + Oxygen -> Carbon dioxide + water + energy
122
Define Photosynthesis.
Process of converting solar energy into chemical energy to make own food.
123
Define Autotrophs.
Photosynthetic organisms that make their own food.
124
Two main reactions of Photosynthesis
Light reaction → occurs in the thylakoid only when sun is out
Calvin cycle (dark reaction) → occurs in the stroma and does not need presence of light
125
Define Light reactions.
Light needed to produce organic energy molecules ATP and NADPH.
- Thylakoids contain chlorophyll (green color in plants)
- jumpstarts photosynthesis
- produces ATP and NADPH
- fuels the cell
- uses Calvin Cycle
126
Define Dark reactions.
No light needed. Instead. Dark reactions use ATP and NADPH to produce energy molecules.
- depends on light reactions
- Uses energy stored and byproducts produced by light dependent interactions to fix CO2
- CO2 is then used to produce sugar/energy
3 possible pathways: C3, C4, CAM
127
Calvin Cycle Stages:
1. Carbon fixation:
Occurs inside the cells of living organisms
In organic atmospheric carbon is converted into organic compounds
2. Reduction
ATP and NADPH convert 3-PGA molecules into sugar (GP3 → glucose)
3. Regeneration
Returns ADP + NADP to light reactions
Recycle some G3P to produce more RuBP
128
Define Cellular Respiration.
Process by which cells harvest the energy stored in photosynthesizes.
- occurs in all heterotrophs
129
What are the 2 types of Cellular respiration?
1. Aerobic (+O2) → more efficient with bigger energy outputs
2. Anaerobic (-O2)
130
Define Aerobic respiration.
Process of breaking down glucose when O2 is present.
Four phases:
1. Glycolysis (in cytoplasm)
2. Prep reaction
3. Citric acid cycle (Kreb-cycle)
4. Electron transport chain
131
Define Anaerobic respiration.
Process of breaking down glucose when O2 is limited or absent
132
How is energy produced when there isn’t enough O2?
Anaerobic respiration in eukaryotes. Starts with Nets 2 ATP.
133
Define Aerobes.
Microorganism that occurs in air and requires energy to grow.
134
Define Anaerobes.
An organism that grows without air. Lives in oxygen-free conditions.
135
Characteristics of Obligate aerobes.
- Cannot survive in the absence of O2
- Produces most energy via aerobic respiration
- Most eukaryotes
136
Characteristics of Obligate anaerobes.
- Cannot survive in the presence of O2
- Produce energy via anaerobic respiration or fermentation
- Mostly prokaryotes + some protists
137
Characteristics of Facultative anaerobes.
- Can survive in either the presence or absence of O2
- Produce energy via cellular respiration or fermentation
- Mostly bacteria, but also some eukaryotes (e.g., fungi - yeast, parasitic protists)
