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Genes Flashcards

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1
Q

What genetic principles account for the transmission of traits from parents to offspring?

A

•”blending” hypothesis

  • “particulate” hypothesis of inheritance: the gene idea
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2
Q

One possible explanation of (blank) is a “(blank)” hypothesis

A

Heredity, blending

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3
Q

The idea that (blank) (blank) contributed by two parents mixes in a manner (blank) to the way blue and yellow paints blend to make green

A

Genetic, material, analogues

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4
Q

An alternative to the blending model is the “(blank)” hypothesis of inheritance: the (blank)(blank)

A

Particulate, the gene idea

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5
Q

An alternative to the blending model is the “particulate” hypothesis of inheritance: the gene idea

  • Parents pass on (blank) (blank) (blank), genes
A

Discrete heritable units

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6
Q

Documented a particulate mechanism of inheritance through his experiments with garden peas

A

Gregor Mendel

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7
Q

Who is Gregor Mendel

A

Documented a particulate mechanism of inheritance through his experiments with garden peas

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8
Q

Concept 14.1:

A

Mendel used the scientific approach to identify two laws of inheritance
Mendel discovered the basic principles of heredity

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9
Q

Mendel discovered the basic principles of heredity by doing what

A

By breeding garden peas in carefully planned experiments

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10
Q

Mendel’s Experimental, (blank) (blank)

A

Quantitative approach

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11
Q

Why did Mendel choose to work with peas?

A

-Because they are available in many varieties
- Because he could strictly control which plants mated with which

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12
Q

Crossing pea plants

APPLICATION

A

By crossing (mating) two true-breeding varieties of an organism, scientists can study patterns of inheritance. In this example, Mendel crossed pea plants that varied in flower color.

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13
Q

Crossing Pea plants
Technique

A

Step
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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14
Q

Crossing pea plants
Results

A

When pollen from a white flower fertilizes eggs of a purple flower, the first-generation hybrids all have purple flowers. The result is the same for the reciprocal cross, the transfer of pollen from purple flowers to white flowers.

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15
Q

a heritable feature, such as flower color

A

Character

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16
Q

a variant of a character, such as purple or white flowers

A

Trait

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17
Q

Mendel chose to track

  • Only those characters that varied in an “blank- blank” manner
A

‘either- or”

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18
Q

Mendel also made sure that

  • He started his experiments with varieties that were “blank-blank”
A

True breeding

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19
Q

In a (blank) breeding experiment

  • Mendel mated two (blank), true-breeding varieties, a process called (blank)
A

Typical, contrasting, hybridization

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20
Q

The true-breeding parents

  • Are called the (blank) (blank)
A

P generation

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21
Q

The hybrid offspring of the P generation .

  • Are called the (blank) (blank)
A

F,1 generation

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22
Q

When F, individuals (blank-blank) .

  • The (blank) (blank) is produced
A

Self-pollinate, F₂ generation

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23
Q

• When Mendel crossed contrasting, true- breeding white and purple flowered pea plants

  • All of the offspring were purple

• When Mendel crossed the F, plants

  • Many of the plants had purple flowers, but some had white flowers
A

The Law of Segregation

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24
Q

What is The Law of Segregation?

A

Mendel’s law of segregation states that: “During the formation of gamete, each gene separates from each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.”

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25
Q

When Mendel crossed contrasting, true- breeding white and purple flowered pea plants

A
  • All of the offspring were purple
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26
Q

When Mendel crossed the F, plants

A
  • Many of the plants had purple flowers, but some had white flowers
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27
Q

Mendel discovered

  • A ratio of about three to one, purple to white flowers, in the (blank) (blank)
A

F₂ generation

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28
Q

Mendel Discovered
Expirement

A

True-breeding purple-flowered pea plants and white-flowered pea plants were crossed (symbolized by x). The resulting F, hybrids were allowed to self-pollinate or were cross- pollinated with other F, hybrids. Flower color was then observed in the F, generation.

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29
Q

Mendel Discovered
Results

A

Both purple-flowered plants and white- flowered plants appeared in the F generation. In Mendel’s experiment, 705 plants had purple flowers, and 224 had white flowers, a ratio of about 3 purple: 1 white.

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30
Q

Mendel Discovered
Photo

A

P generation explanation

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31
Q

Mendel reasoned that (1)

A
  • In the F, plants, only the purple flower factor was affecting flower color in these hybrids
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32
Q

Mendel reasoned that (2)

A

Purple flower color was dominant, and white flower color was recessive

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33
Q

Mendel observed the same pattern in many other (blank) (blank) (blank)

A

pea plant characters

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34
Q

•Mendel developed a hypothesis

  • To explain the 3:1 inheritance pattern that he observed among the F₂ offspring

•Four related concepts make up this model

A

Mendel’s model

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35
Q

Mendel developed a hypothesis

  • To explain the (sentence blank)
A

3:1 inheritance pattern that he observed among the F₂ offspring

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36
Q

Mendel’s model
First, ( blank sentence)

A

alternative versions of genes

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37
Q

First, alternative versions of genes

  • Account for variations in inherited characters, which are now called (blank)
A

Alleles

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38
Q

Mendel’s Model
Second, (blank sentence)

A

for each character

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39
Q

Second, for each character (1)

A
  • An organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent
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40
Q

Second, for each character (2)

A

A genetic locus is actually represented twice

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41
Q

Mendel’s Model
Third, (blank sentence)

A

if the two alleles at a locus differ

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42
Q

Third, if the two alleles at a locus differ (1)

A

Then one, the dominant allele, determines the organism’s appearance

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43
Q

Third, if the two alleles at a locus differ (2)

A

The other allele, the recessive allele, has no noticeable effect on the organism’s appearance

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44
Q

Mendel’s model
Fourth, (blank sentence)

A

the law of segregation

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45
Q

Fourth, the law of segregation

A
  • The two alleles for a heritable character separate (segregate) during gamete formation and end up in different gametes
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46
Q

Does Mendel’s segregation model account for the 3:1 ratio he observed in the F₂ generation of his numerous crosses?

A
  • We can answer this question using a Punnett square
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47
Q

Mendel’s law of segregation, (blank) and the (blank) (blank)

A

Probability, punnett square

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48
Q

Useful Genetic Vocabulary

• An organism that is (blank) for a particular gene

  • Has a pair of identical alleles for that gene - Exhibits true-breeding
A

homozygous

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49
Q

Useful Genetic Vocabulary

• An organism that is homozygous for a particular gene (1)

A

Has a pair of identical alleles for that gene

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50
Q

Useful Genetic Vocabulary

• An organism that is homozygous for a particular gene (2)

A
  • Exhibits true-breeding
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51
Q

Useful Genetic Vocabulary

An organism that is (blank) for a particular gene
- Has a pair of alleles that are different for that gene

A

heterozygous

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52
Q

Useful Genetic Vocabulary
An organism that is heterozygous for a particular gene (1)

A
  • Has a pair of alleles that are different for that gene
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53
Q

Useful Genetic Vocabulary
- Is its physical appearance

A

An organism’s phenotype

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54
Q

Useful Genetic Vocabulary
- Is its genetic makeup

A

An organism’s genotype

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55
Q

Phenotype versus genotype (explain)

A

The genotype refers to the genetic material passed between generations, and the phenotype is observable characteristics or traits of an organism.

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56
Q

In pea plants with purple flowers

  • The genotype is not immediately obvious
A

The Testcross

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57
Q

In pea plants with purple flowers

  • The (blank) is not immediately obvious
A

genotype

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58
Q
  • Allows us to determine the genotype of an organism with the dominant phenotype, but unknown genotype
  • Crosses an individual with the dominant phenotype with an individual that is homozygous recessive for a trait
A

A testcross

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59
Q

A testcross (1)

A

Allows us to determine the genotype of an organism with the dominant phenotype, but unknown genotype

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60
Q

A testcross (2)

A
  • Crosses an individual with the dominant phenotype with an individual that is homozygous recessive for a trait
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61
Q

The testcross
APPLICATION

A

An organism that exhibits a dominant trait,

such as purple flowers in pea plants, can be either homozygous for the dominant allele or heterozygous. To determine the organism’s genotype, geneticists can perform a testcross

62
Q

The testcross
Technique

A

in a testcross, the individual with the

unknown genotype is crossed with a homozygous individual expressing the recessive trait (white flowers in this example). By observing the phenotypes of the offspring resulting from this cross, we can deduce the genotype of the purple-flowered parent.

63
Q

The testcross photo analysis

A

analyzation

64
Q

•Mendel derived the law of segregation

By following a single trait

•The F, offspring produced in this cross

  • Were monohybrids, heterozygous for one character
A

The Law of Independent Assortment

65
Q

Mendel derived the law of segregation by (blank sentence)

A

following a single trait

66
Q

The Law of Independent Assortment
The F, offspring produced in this cross

  • Were (blank), (blank) for one character
A

monohybrids, heterozygous

67
Q

Mendel identified his second (blank) of (blank)

A

Law of inheritance

68
Q

Mendel identified his second law of inheritance

  • By (blank sentence)
A

following two characters at the same time

69
Q

Crossing two, (blank-blank) parents differing in two characters

  • Produces (blank) in the F, and generation, (blank) for both characters
A

true-breeding, dihybrids, heterozygous

70
Q

How are two characters transmitted from parents to offspring?

A
  • As a package?
  • Independently?
71
Q
  • Illustrates the inheritance of two characters
A

A dihybrid cross

72
Q

Produces four phenotypes in the F₂2 generation

A

A dihybrid cross

73
Q

A dihybrid cross
Produces four (blank) in the (blank) (blank)

A

phenotypes, F₂2 generation

74
Q

A dihybrid cross
Experiment

A

Two true-breeding pea plants-

one with yellow-round seeds and the other with green -wrinkled seeds were crossed, producing dihybrid F, plants. Self-pollination of the F, dihybrids, which are heterozygous for both characters, produced the F generation. The two hypotheses predict different phenotypic ratios. Note that yellow color (Y) and round shape (R) are dominant.

75
Q

A dihybrid cross
Conclusion

A

The results support the hypothesis of independent assortment. The alleles for seed color and seed shape sort into gametes independently of each other.

76
Q

A dihybrid cross
Photo analysis

A

Analyzes

77
Q

Concept (blank): The laws of probability govern Mendelian inheritance

A

14.2

78
Q

Concept 14.2:

A

The laws of probability govern Mendelian inheritance

79
Q

Reflect the rules of probability

A

Mendel’s laws of segregation and independent assortment

80
Q

The (blank) and (blank) Rules Applied to (blank) (blank)

A

Multiplication, addition, Monohybrid Crosses

81
Q
  • States that the probability that two or more independent events will occur together is the product of their individual probabilities
A

• The multiplication rule

82
Q

Can be determined using this rule

A

Probability in a monohybrid cross

83
Q
  • States that the probability that any one of two or more exclusive events will occur is calculated by adding together their individual probabilities
A

The rule of addition

84
Q

Solving Complex Genetics Problems with the (blank) of (blank)

A

Rules of Probability

85
Q
  • To predict the outcome of crosses involving multiple characters
A

• We can apply the rules of probability

86
Q
  • Is equivalent to two or more independent monohybrid crosses occurring simultaneously
A

A dihybrid or other multicharacter cross

87
Q

In calculating the chances for various (blank) from such (blank)

  • Each character first is considered separately and then the individual probabilities are (blank) together
A

genotypes, crosses, multiplied

88
Q

Concept 14.3:

A

Inheritance patterns are often more complex than predicted by simple Mendelian genetics

89
Q

Inheritance patterns are often more complex than predicted by simple Mendelian genetics

A

Concept 14.3:

90
Q

Concept 14.3: (2)

A

The relationship between genotype and phenotype is rarely simple

91
Q

Extending (blank) (blank) for a Single Gene

A

Mendelian Genetics

92
Q

Extending Mendelian Genetics for a Single Gene

• The inheritance of characters by a single gene
-(sentence)

A

May deviate from simple Mendelian patterns

93
Q

The Spectrum of Dominance

Occurs when the phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are identical

A

Complete dominance

94
Q

The Spectrum of Dominance

Two dominant alleles affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways

A

In codominance

95
Q

The Spectrum of Dominance
- Is an example of codominance

A

The human blood group MN

96
Q

The phenotype of F, hybrids is somewhere between the phenotypes of the two parental varieties

A

In incomplete dominance

97
Q

The Spectrum of Dominance
The Relation Between (blank) and (blank)

A

Dominance, Phenotype

98
Q

-Do not really “interact”

  • Lead to synthesis of different proteins that produce a phenotype
A

Dominant and recessive alleles

99
Q

Dominant and recessive alleles (1)

A

-Do not really “interact”

100
Q

Dominant and recessive alleles (2)

A

Lead to synthesis of different proteins that produce a phenotype

101
Q

The Spectrum of Dominance
Frequency of (blank) (blank)

A

Dominant Alleles

102
Q
  • Occurs when the phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are identical
A

Complete dominance

103
Q
  • Are not necessarily more common in populations than recessive alleles
A

Dominant alleles

104
Q

Most genes exist in populations

A

Multiple Alleles

105
Q

Most genes exist in populations

  • In more than two (blank) (blank)
A

allelic, forms

106
Q

Is determined by multiple alleles

A

The ABO blood group in humans

107
Q

A gene has multiple phenotypic effects

A

pleiotropy

108
Q

In pleiotropy, A gene has multiple (blank) effects

A

phenotypic

109
Q

Some traits
- May be (blank sentence)

A

determined by two or more genes

110
Q
  • A gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus
A

In epistasis

111
Q

In epistasis

  • A gene at one (blank) alters the (blank) expression of a gene at a (blank) locus
A

locus, phenotypic, second

112
Q

example of epistasis

A

what

113
Q

Polygenic Inheritance (1)

A

Many human characters

114
Q

Polygenic Inheritance

• Many human characters

  • Vary in the population along a (blank) and are called (blank) (blank)
A

continuum, quantitative, characters

115
Q

Polygenic Inheritance
- An additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotype

A

Quantitative variation usually indicates polygenic inheritance

116
Q

Nature and Nurture: The Environmental Impact on (blank)

A

Phenotype

117
Q

Another departure from simple (blank) (blank) (blank)
- When the phenotype for a character depends on environment as well as on genotype

A

Mendelian genetics arises

118
Q
  • Is the phenotypic range of a particular genotype that is influenced by the environment
A

The norm of reaction

119
Q
  • Are those that are influenced by both genetic and environmental factors
A

Multifactorial characters

120
Q
  • Are those that are influenced by both genetic and environmental factors
A

Multifactorial characters

121
Q

Integrating a (blank) View of (blank) and (blank)

A

Mendelian, Heredity, Variation

122
Q
  • Includes its physical appearance, internal anatomy, physiology, and behavior
  • Reflects its overall genotype and unique

environmental history

A

An organism’s phenotype

123
Q

An organism’s phenotype (1)

A
  • Includes its physical appearance, internal anatomy, physiology, and behavior
124
Q

An organism’s phenotype (2)

A
  • Reflects its overall genotype and unique environmental history
125
Q

Even in more complex (blank) (blank)
- Mendel’s fundamental laws of (blank) and (blank) (blank) still apply

A

inheritance patterns, segregation, independent assortment

126
Q

Concept 14.4:

A

Many human traits follow Mendelian patterns of inheritance

127
Q

Many human traits follow Mendelian patterns of inheritance

A

Concept 14.4:

128
Q

(Blank) are not convenient subjects for genetic research

  • However, the study of (blank) (blank) continues to advance
A

Humans, human genetics

129
Q
  • Is a family tree that describes the interrelationships of parents and children across generations
A

A pedigree

130
Q

Inheritance (blank) of particular traits

  • Can be traced and described using (blank)
A

patterns, pedigrees

131
Q

Can also be used to make predictions about future offspring

A

Pedigrees

132
Q

Many genetic disorders
- Are inherited in a (blank) (blank)

A

recessive manner

133
Q
  • Show up only in individuals homozygous for the allele
A

Recessively inherited disorders

134
Q

Recessively inherited disorders

  • Show up only in individuals (blank) for the (blank)
A

homozygous, allele

135
Q
  • Are heterozygous individuals who carry the recessive allele but are phenotypically normal
A

Carriers

136
Q

Symptoms of cystic fibrosis include:

A
  • Mucus buildup in the some internal organs
  • Abnormal absorption of nutrients in the small intestine
137
Q

-Affects one out of 400 African-Americans

  • Is caused by the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein in red blood cells
A

Sickle-Cell Disease

138
Q

Sickle-Cell Disease
Is caused by the (blank) of a single (blank) (blank) in the (blank) (blank) in red blood cells

A

substitution, amino acid, hemoglobin protein

139
Q

Sickle-Cell Disease
Symptoms include

A
  • Physical weakness, pain, organ damage, and even paralysis
140
Q

Matings between relatives

  • Can increase the (blank sentence)
A

probability of the appearance of a genetic disease

141
Q

Mating of Close Relatives
Are called (blank) (blank)

A

consanguineous matings

142
Q

Some human disorders

  • Are due to (blank) (blank)
A

dominant alleles

143
Q

Dominantly Inherited Disorders
Example: A form of dwarfism that is lethal when homozygous for the dominant allele

A

achondroplasia

144
Q

Dominantly Inherited Disorders
- Is a degenerative disease of the nervous system
-Has no obvious phenotypic effects until about 35 to 40 years of age

A

Huntington’s disease

145
Q

Multifactorial Disorders
Many human diseases
- Have both (blank) and (blank)
components

A

genetic, environmental

146
Q

Many human diseases

  • Have both genetic and environment

components

• Examples include

A

Heart disease and cancer

147
Q

Genetic Testing and Counseling
- Can provide information to prospective parents concerned about a family history for a specific disease

A

Genetic counselors

148
Q

Counseling Based on Mendelian Genetics and Probability Rules

  • Genetic counselors help couples determine the odds that their children will have genetic disorders
A

Using family histories

149
Q

Tests for Identifying Carriers

  • Tests are available that identify carriers and help define the odds more accurately
A

For a growing number of diseases

150
Q

Fetal Testing
- The liquid that bathes the fetus is removed and tested

A

In amniocentesis

151
Q

Fetal Testing
A sample of the placenta is removed and tested

A

In chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

152
Q

Some genetic disorders can be detected at birth
- By simple tests that are now routinely performed in most hospitals in the United States

A

Newborn Screening

Gen. Bio Mendel And Gene Idea (1 decks)

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