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MS Exam - Viticulture > General Viticulture > Flashcards

General Viticulture Flashcards

1
Q

Very sandy soils lose _____ quickly, and are _____ prone.

A

moisture, frost

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2
Q

Soils rich in humus are often too high in _____ for grapes.

A

Nitrogen

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3
Q

How does one correct an overly acid soil?

A

with ground limestone

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4
Q

How does one correct an overly alkaline soil?

A

with gypsum

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5
Q

French-American hybrids like a _____ soil.

A

slightly acid to neutral

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6
Q

Generally, vinifera likes a slightly _____ soil.

A

alkaline

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7
Q

What does an abundance of potassium do to pH levels?

A

raises them

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8
Q

What are some things that too much boron in the soil can cause?

A

It can hasten maturity, increase sugar content, raise the grapes’ pH.

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9
Q

Regarding temperature, how does well-drained soils compare to poorly-drained soils? What does this do?

A

Well-drained soils are warmer, and promote better vine growth and ripening.

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10
Q

In areas where sugar is adequate, but acid is high, what kind of vineyard temperature is ideal and why?

A

You would want higher vineyard temperature with a wider spacing, so as much sunlight as possible falls on soil.

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11
Q

It is recommended that slopes above 42 degrees North latitude be reduced in spacing from _____ to _____.

A

10 feet to 7 feet.

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12
Q

Why must vine rows follow the contour?

A

To prevent gullies and erosion.

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13
Q

What is the temperature comparison of a valley floor to a slope during the day? At night?

A

Night - Floor 2-4 degrees less than slope

Day - Floor - 2 degrees warmer than slope

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14
Q

At what grade does cooler air tend to slide downhill?

A

2 degrees.

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15
Q

The typical acre of California vinifera carries how many vines?

How many in Europe?

A

440 to 600

In Europe, it’s much more. Sometimes as much as 3,000.

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16
Q

A fully mature, vigorous vine will fully use how many square feet?

A

60

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17
Q

How many pounds of grapes per vine does vinifera usually yield?

A

8

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18
Q

On average, a mature grapevine yields how many pounds of grapes?

A

8-12

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19
Q

When did the BATF regulations become mandatory?

A

January 1, 1983

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20
Q

What places are doing much of the research on new wine grapes?

A

The New York State Agricultural Testing Station at Geneva, and UC Davis.

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21
Q

What place may be the original home to Pierce’s Disease? Why?

A

Gulf States in the US South, because many grapevines in the area are resistant to Pierce’s Disease.

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22
Q

How many varieties of grapes are grown, and how many acres are planted?

A

6,000 varieties, 22 million acres

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23
Q

Cultivation west of Greece didn’t happen until about when?

A

1,000 BC

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24
Q

What is yeast?

A

one-celled plants that grow naturally on grape skins and convert sugar to alcohol.

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25
Q

What is viticulture?

A

The Science of growing grapes.

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26
Q

What does vigor refer to?

A

The intensity of a vine’s growth.

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27
Q

What are trace elements of a vine?

A

zinc, manganese, iron and magnesium.

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28
Q

What is stock?

A

vegetable material for planting, such as grape stock for planting in a vineyard.

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29
Q

What is the stigma?

A

The female portion of a grape flower that accepts a pollen grain from the anther.

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30
Q

What is the secondary fermentation?

A

The slower fermentation accomplished away from air, that reduces the sugar left after the primary fermentation to alcohol.

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31
Q

What is a scion?

A

Wood that’s grafted to a rootstock, or to aerial parts of a growing vine.

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32
Q

What is primary fermentation?

A

The initial, rapid fermentation during which about 2/3 of the sugar in the must is converted by yeast into alcohol.

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33
Q

What does pH measure?

A

The concentration of hydrogen ions.

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34
Q

What is a peduncle?

A

The stem that attaches the grape cluster to the shoot.

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35
Q

What is a pedicle?

A

The stem that attaches the grape berries to a cluster.

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36
Q

What is overcropping?

A

Allowing too many fruit clusters to form, which will weaken the overall crop.

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37
Q

What is an internode?

A

The portion of a shoot or cane between the nodes.

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38
Q

What is humus?

A

Fully decayed organic matter that adds structure and nutrients to a soil.

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39
Q

What is a corolla?

A

An individual grape flower before it blossoms.

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40
Q

What does calcareous mean?

A

A soil with a lot of calcium compounds in it, such as limestone or chalk soils.

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41
Q

What is the bed?

A

The prepared soil in which the grapevines are planted.

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42
Q

What is the anther?

A

The male structure of the grape flower that produces pollen.

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43
Q

Who certifies biodynamic farms and vineyards?

A

Demeter Biodynamic Trade Association

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44
Q

Who introduced biodynamic viticulture, and when?

A

Rudolf Steiner, 1924

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45
Q

What is biodynamic viticulture?

A

A concept that combines organic and sustainable farming, that also observes the rhythms and forces of the earth, to ultimately treat the land, vines and general area as a whole organism.

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46
Q

What is the role of California Certified Sustainable Winegrowing (CCSW)?

A

They provide incremental certification for wineries and vineyards based on a concept of continual improvement.

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47
Q

Who is VINEA?

A

A voluntary group of Walla Walla Valley winegrowers who promote a holistic , socially and environmentally responsible methodology.

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48
Q

What is IPM?

A

Integrated Pest Management. An umbrella term, mostly considered to be sustainable viticulture. It is often seen as a first step towards organic or biodynamic viticulture.

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49
Q

How many wineries in California use any organically grown grapes?

A

less than 10%

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50
Q

What are the requirements for an American or Australian wine to be labeled “organic”?

A
  1. It must be produced from organically grown grapes.

2. It must contain no added sulfites.

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51
Q

What’s often the first sign of grapevine yellows?

A

Delayed budbreak and very slow shoot growth.

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52
Q

When, where and on what did Flavescence Doreé first appear (recorded)?

A

1949, Armagnac on Baco 22A

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53
Q

How is Flavescence Doreé spread?

A

By leafhopper insects and propagation of infected vines.

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54
Q

What is Flavescence Doreé?

A

A phytoplasma disease that discolors leaves, causes pustules and cracks to form, and may kill young vines.

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55
Q

What does Fanleaf Degeneration do to the vine?

A

It deforms shoot growth, and leads to poor fruit set and seedless berries.

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56
Q

What is Fanleaf Degeneration?

A

A nepovirus spread by soil nematodes feeding on infected roots that severely curtails yields.

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57
Q

How is the Leafroll Virus spread?

A

Through propagation of infected vines or by an insect vector.

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58
Q

What do vines affected with Leafroll Virus look like in Autumn?

A

Shaded red and gold, with a downward curling of the leaves, experiencing reduced yields and delayed ripening.

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59
Q

What can Bacterial Blight be controlled by?

A

Hot water treatments and copper sprays (like Bordeaux mixture).

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60
Q

How much of the world’s grape production losses is Leafroll Virus responsible for?

A

60%

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61
Q

What spreads Bacterial Blight?

A

Rain and compromised pruning tools

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62
Q

What causes Bacterial Blight?

A

The Xanthomonas ampelina bacterium

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63
Q

How is Crown Gall spread?

A

Through the propagation of bacteria-infected budwood.

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64
Q

In what type of climates does Crown Gall thrive?

A

Cooler climates

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65
Q

What is Crown Gall also known as?

A

Black Knot

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66
Q

What does Crown Gall do to a vine?

A

The vine develops tumors on its trunk, which girdle and essentially strangle the vine, withering or killing outright the portions of the vine above.

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67
Q

What causes Crown Gall?

A

The Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium.

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68
Q

What is the main method to limit the effects of Pierce’s Disease?

A

Strict quarantines

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69
Q

Where is Pierce’s Disease Common?

A

Southern US & Mexico

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70
Q

What is volcanic soil?

A

Soil derived from…

1) Rock material that has been ejected into the air and cooled before settling to the earth.
2) Lava from a volcano

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71
Q

What is Ultisol?

A

A highly weathered, largely infertile clay-based soil, usually brilliant in color, found in the American South

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72
Q

What is tufa?

A

A highly friable calcareous bedrock that breaks down into a fine crumb structure.

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73
Q

What is Terra Rossa?

A

A sedimentary soil formed after carbonates have been leached out of limestone. The breakdown leaves behind iron deposits which oxidize and turn rustic red. It drains well and is relatively high in nutrients.

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74
Q

What is Steige?

A

A schist-based soil found in the Andlau region of Alsace. In Kastelberg, the soil has metamorphosed with granite sand to form a hard, dark slate-like stone.

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75
Q

What is slate?

A

A metamorphic plate-like rock formed when shale, clay, or siltstone is subjected to pressure deep within the earth. The soil retains heat well and warms up relatively quickly.

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76
Q

What is silex?

A

A flint and sand-based soil type found primarily in the Loire Valley that is formed from a mixture of clay, limestone and silica.

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77
Q

What is silt?

A

A soil type consisting of fine grain deposits that offer good water retention but poor drainage. It is more fertile than sand.

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78
Q

What is Siliceous soil?

A

Soil composed of acid rock that is crystalline in nature. The soil has good heat retention but needs the added composition of silt, clay, and other sedimentary soils to have any kind of water retention.

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79
Q

What is shale?

A

Fine grain, sedimentary based soil that can turn into slate when under pressure. The soil is moderately fertile and retains heat well.

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80
Q

What is schist?

A

Laminated, crystalline rock based soil that retains heat well and is rich in magnesium and potassium, but is poor in organic nutrients and nitrogens.

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81
Q

What is sand?

A

Warm, airy soil that is composed of tiny particles of weathered rocks. One of the few soils that phylloxera doesn’t thrive in. The soil drains well, but does not have good water retention. It’s a sedimentary soil composed of sand particles that have been pressure bound by various iron-based minerals.

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82
Q

What is quartz?

A

A common material found in most vineyard soils. The high soil pH of quartz can reduce the acidity of the resulting wines, but its heat retaining property that stores and reflects heat can increase in wine of higher alcohol content.

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83
Q

What is perlite?

A

A volcanic soil that is light, powdery and lustrous with properties similar to diatomaceous earth.

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84
Q

What is Muschelkalk?

A

A soil type consisting of various compositions of sandstone, marl, dolomite and shingle, common in Alsace dating back from the Middle Triassic period.

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85
Q

What is Mica-Silicate?

A

Soil composed of fine, decomposed rock formations.

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86
Q

What is marl?

A

A calcareous clay based soil that adds acidity to the wine. Vines planted in this type of soil normally ripen later than in other soil types. It is typically deep and lacking in stone fragment. It is the main soil type in Piedmont.

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87
Q

What is loess?

A

A very fine, silt-based soil composed of windborne sediment that is typically angular and decalcified. The soil has good water retention and warming properties.

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88
Q

What is loam?

A

A warm, soft, fertile soil composed of roughly equal amounts of silt, sand and clay. It is typically too fertile for high quality wines.

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89
Q

What is Llicorella?

A

A soil in Priorat, which is a mix of slate and quartz that dates to the Paleozoic era. The soil is very porous and drains well.

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90
Q

What is limestone?

A

Sedimentary based soil consisting of carbonates. The most common colored limestone found in a wine-producing area is buff-gray in color. Home to high-acid grapes. It is the main soil type of the Zinnkoepflé region of Alsace.

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91
Q

What is lignite?

A

A soil type used as fertilizer in Germany and Champagne. It is a brown-colored carbonaceous soil that is intermediate between peat and coal.

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92
Q

What is Kimmeridgian soil?

A

A gray colored limestone-based soil originally identified in Kimmeridge, England. Kimmeridgian clay is calcareous clay containing Kimmeridgian limestone. This is the principle soil type of the Loire valley, Champagne and Burgundy regions.

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93
Q

What is Keuper?

A

A soil type consisting of marl and limestone, common in Alsace, dating to the Upper Triassic period.

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94
Q

What is hardpan?

A

A dense layer of clay or other material that is impermeable to water. In some areas of Bordeaux, a sandy iron-rich layer is located deep enough below the surface to act as a water table for the vine.

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95
Q

What is Greywacke?

A

Sedimentary soil formed by rivers depositing quartz, mudstone and feldspar. It is found in Germany, New Zealand and South Africa.

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96
Q

What is gravel?

A

Loose siliceous pebble soil that has good drainage but poor fertility. Vines planted in this type of soil must penetrate deeply to try to find nutrients in the subsoil.

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97
Q

What is granite?

A

Soil composed of 40-60% quartz, 30-40% Orthoclase, and various amounts of hornblende, mica, and other minerals. This soil warms quickly and retains heat well. The soil’s high level of acidity works to minimize the acid levels in the grapes, which works well with acidic grapes like Gamay. It is the main soil type of the Brand Region of Alsace.

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98
Q

What is Galestro?

A

Schist-based soil found in the Tuscany region of Italy.

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99
Q

What is flint?

A

Siliceous stone that reflects and retains heat well. Pouilly-Fumé is known for flint.

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100
Q

What is Dolomite?

A

Calcium-magnesium carbonate soil.

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101
Q

What is clay?

A

Sedimentary rock based soil that has good water retention ability but poor drainage. The soil is often very cool and high in acidity.

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102
Q

What is chalk?

A

A very porous soft limestone soil that vine roots can easily penetrate. It provides good drainage and works best for grapes with high acidity levels.

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103
Q

What is calcareous soil?

A

Alkaline soil with high levels of calcium and Magnesium carbonate. Typically, it is soil that is cool in temperature that provides good water retention and drainage. They also have high limestone content that neutralizes natural acidity. The cooler temperatures can delay ripening of the grape.

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104
Q

What is Boulbènes?

A

A fine, siliceous soil that is easily compressed, and common in Entre-deux-Mers.

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105
Q

What is basalt?

A

Volcanic rock that is high in calcium, iron and magnesium. There is variable potassium and little to no quartz.

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106
Q

What is alluvial soil?

A

Highly fertile soil that has been transported by a river. It is prominent in Médoc and Marlborough.

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107
Q

What is Albariza?

A

A white, chalky looking soil in Andalucia formed by diatomaceous deposits, and has a high limestone content.

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108
Q

What may happen to the leaves during the hottest part of the day?

A

They may temporarily wilt.

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109
Q

The zone of active absorption is how long?

A

20 mm

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110
Q

What nutrients may be derived from rock weathering?

Macro?

Micro?

A

Macro: Phosphorus, Sulfur, Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium, Chlorine

Micro: Iron, Manganese, Zinc, Copper, Boron, Molybdenum

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111
Q

What elements may arrive via rain or dust particles?

A

Chlorine, Sodium, Magnesium, Calcium and Sulfur.

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112
Q

How does the vine get Carbon and oxygen?

A

In CO2 from the atmosphere and Oxygen from the water.

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113
Q

What are the micronutrients for vines?

A

Iron, Mangangese, Zinc, Copper, Boron, Molybdenum.

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114
Q

What are the macronutrients for vines?

A

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur, Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium, Chlorine.

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115
Q

You should pick botrytized white grapes when the pH reaches _______.

A

3.2

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116
Q

One should start harvest at a ______ Brix: TA ratio.

A

30:1

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117
Q

What are ions?

A

The charged forms of the elements that are released when compounds of the elements are dissolved in water.

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118
Q

How many elements must grapevines have in orders to normally flower and produce fruit?

A

16

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119
Q

Contour banks and terraces generally can be common, starting at _____% grade.

A

6%

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120
Q

Vineyard soil should have a pH of what?

A

5.5-7.5

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121
Q

The three general particles of soil are…

A

clay, silt and sand

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122
Q

What is humification?

A

The formation of humus through the process of organic residues being decomposed by microorganisms.

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123
Q

What is soil oxidation and reduction?

A

Weathering of Fe (Iron) containing minerals releases ferric and ferrous ions, which are in a reversible equilibrium depending on O2 availability. High O2 concentrations (aerobic conditions) favor Fe3+ compounds, particularly the oxides which are insoluble and orange-red. Low O2 concentrations favor Fe2+ compounds, which are more soluble and give a blue-gray color to the soil.

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124
Q

What is hydrolysis, specifically pertaining to vineyards?

A

The cleavage of chemical bonds by the addition of water. Water hydrolizes silicate materials by splitting into H+ ions (Hydrogen) and OH- ions (Hydroxide), with H+ ions attacking the minerals, and clay minerals are formed.

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125
Q

What are metamorphic rocks?

A

Igneous and sedimentary rocks subjected to heat and pressure that has changed the original rock structure and minerals.

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126
Q

What are sedimentary rocks?

A

Weathered rock material deposited under water or by wind and subsequently compressed.

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127
Q

What are igneous rocks?

A

Rocks derived from volcanic activity.

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128
Q

When does soil begin to form?

A

When a rock is first exposed to weather.

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129
Q

Wines are mostly in balance when ratio of Brix:TA is between ______ and _____.

A

30:1 & 35:1

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130
Q

What causes high pH?

A
  • Overripe grapes

- Too much potassium in soil.

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131
Q

High pH juice can lead to what issues?

A

Wine defects from spoilage organisms.

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132
Q

What is the optimum acid level at harvest for red grapes? For white grapes?

A 
Reds= 0.6 to 0.8
Whites= 0.65 to 0.85
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133
Q

What is the primary acid of a grape?

A

Tartaric acid

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134
Q

The optimum brix for Vinifera is what?

A

22-24

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135
Q

If Brix is 25.3, the % potential alcohol is what?

A

15.0

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136
Q

If Brix is 20.9, the % potential alcohol is what?

A

11.9

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137
Q

1 degree Brix = 1 gram of _____ in _____ grams of solution.

A

Sucrose, 100

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138
Q

What is Brix?

A

The percentage of solutes by weight.

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139
Q

What are the 3 factors tracked for harvest to help grapes reach optimum levels?

A

sugar, acid, pH

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140
Q

What is also known as Balling?

A

Brix

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141
Q

If there is yellowing between veins and on margins, the vine is likely suffering from a deficiency of what?

A

potassium

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142
Q

If a grapevine is producing less than its normal amount, the vine may need more what?

A

Nitrogen

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143
Q

How are Japanese beetles detrimental to vines?

A

They reduce photosynthesis.

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144
Q

What is a good preventative and remedy for mites and scale insects?

A

Dormant oil spray

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145
Q

Where is the Four-Arm Kniffen often used?

A

U.S. East Coast

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146
Q

What are primary benefits to cluster thinning?

A

Reducing bunch rot by creating looser clusters.

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147
Q

When is the right time to cluster thin and why?

A

Early spring before the clusters’ flowers open so you can properly improve growth.

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148
Q

Typically, buds on what part of the cane will shoot first?

A

Further out on the cane.

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149
Q

In what climates is pruning normally delayed until the buds start to swell?

Why?

A

In areas where late freezes occur.

To prevent damage from late freezes.

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150
Q

Crop is grown at the expense of what?

A

Vegetative growth

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151
Q

Cordons can be pruned to spurs of _____ to _____ buds, or canes of _____ to _____ buds.

A

2 to 5

10 to 12

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152
Q

In regions of high light intensity, which buds are fruitful that may otherwise not be?

A

1 to 3

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153
Q

On a typical French-American hybrid, which buds are the most fruitful?

A

6 to 12

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154
Q

What does a renewal spur provide?

A

Rise to a vigorous shoot that will be retained for the fruiting cane the next year.

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155
Q

Which buds are fruitful buds?

A

Buds formed on wood of the previous season’s growth.

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156
Q

Pruning must be done before _____.

A

budbreak

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157
Q

When is the best time to prune?

A

When the buds start looking plump.

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158
Q

Why do new trunks constantly form?

A

In attempts to reduce problems that old vinifera has with virus, crown gall, and other grape diseases.

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159
Q

It is common to recommend having no trunk older than _____ years.

A

5

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160
Q

Which side of the wire should you tie vines?

Why?

A

The side facing the prevailing wind.

It helps reduce breakage of canes.

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161
Q

How should buds from older wood be used?

A

They should be removed.

162
Q

Irrigation may be necessary if there is less than _____ inches of rain a year.

A

12

163
Q

What are advantages of a stone mulch?

A

It keeps the weeds down, and the stones retain the heat of late summer and early fall days.

164
Q

In what climate is mulching recommended?

A

Very hot, dry areas.

165
Q

When are weeds and cover crops good? Why?

A

Near the end of July.

It helps the grapes slow down.

166
Q

Why does a movable wire trellis have some use?

A

It can hang grape clusters in filtered sunlight in the open air underneath.

167
Q

Are two-wire trellis wires higher in warmer or cooler areas?

A

cooler

168
Q

One-wire trellis is best for what?

A

Raisins or table grape production

169
Q

How long should a growing season be if you’re using vertical cordon training?

A

300 days.

170
Q

What is vertical cordon often used for?

A

Chardonnay (and sometimes Cabernet Sauvignon).

171
Q

What 3 grapes are likely to be supported by goblets?

A

Petite Sirah, Zinfandel, Carignane.

172
Q

Where are head-trained vines mostly found?

A

northern California

173
Q

Why is it not a good idea to plant a vineyard near a forest?

A

The cool, humid air promotes fungus and disease attacks, and insects can be a problem.

174
Q

When is trenching or handwork done?

A

In the autumn before the spring in which you’ll plant.

175
Q

What can adding sand do to clay soil?

A

Open up larger pore spaces.

176
Q

Why isn’t subsoiling as deep on slopes?

A

Slopes are assured better water drainage.

177
Q

Preparing soil for grapes may ultimately mean to do what?

A

Loosen, break up and mix soil layers well below ordinary cultivation depth.

178
Q

What is a strength of Dogridge rootstock?

A

Ability to growwell and support good grafts of vinifera and hybrids.

179
Q

What is Riparia rootstock good for?

A

holding down vigor.

180
Q

When does replant status become important?

A

If you want to plant where grapes have grown within the past 3 years.

181
Q

What does soil depth mean?

A

soil’s ability to drain water

182
Q

What are hardpans?

A

compacted, impervious layers of soil that act like cement.

183
Q

Soils for vines should have a depth of at least ______.

A

30 inches

184
Q

What advantage does a soil that is dark because of dark rocks have?

A

Advantage of extra heat-holding capacity.

185
Q

What does Pierce’s Disease do to vines?

A

Render them incapable of producing cholorophyll and killing it within 1-5 years.

186
Q

What is a glassy-winged sharpshooter?

A

A leafhopping insect found near citrus orchards and oleander plants.

187
Q

What causes Pierce’s Disease?

What transmits it?

A

The bacteria Xylella fastidiosa.

The glassy-winged sharpshooter.

188
Q

Botrytis requires what in order to germinate?

A

Warm weather and at least 90% humidity.

189
Q

What is bunch rot?

A

A grouping of similar diseases caused by a number of fungi species.

190
Q

What’s the best way to control Black Rot?

A

fungicide sprays

191
Q

How does Black Rot initially look on a vine?

A

As black spots on the vine’s shoots, leaves and berries.

192
Q

What causes Black Rot?

A

The Guignardia bidwelli fungus

193
Q

How did black rot spread to Europe?

A

With the importation of phylloxera-resistant rootstocks in the late 1800s.

194
Q

Where is Black Rot native to?

A

North America

195
Q

Esca-infected vines rarely live past what?

A

30 years of age

196
Q

What can Esca do to older vines?

A

It affects the wood, causing the interior of the trunk and arms to soften and rot from the inside.

197
Q

What does Esca do to young vines?

A

Weaken growth, affect berry development and discolor leaves. Death may occur in hot weather.

198
Q

Where does Esca thrive?

A

warmer climates

199
Q

What is Esca also known as?

What kind of disease is it?

A

Black measles

Fungal

200
Q

What do vines infected with Eutypa Dieback experience?

A

Stunted shoot growth, as the fungus releases toxins, and potentially causes the death of a cane.

201
Q

What does Eutypa Dieback primarily affect?

A

yield

202
Q

How does Eutypa Dieback enter the vine?

A

carried by rain, entering the vine through pruning wounds.

203
Q

What causes Eutypa Dieback?

A

The Eutypa lata fungus

204
Q

What is Eutypa Dieback also known as?

A

Dead Arm

205
Q

What is Bordeaux Mixture?

A

A blue-staining spray of copper sulfate, water and lime, developed in 1885 to prevent outbreaks of downy mildew.

206
Q

What does downy mildew cause?

A

Dropping of vine leaves, which limits the vine’s ability to photosynthesize.

207
Q

What is the agent of downy mildew?

A

Plasmopara viticola

208
Q

What can mealy bugs of the genera Planococcus and Pseudococcus spread?

A

Leafroll virus

209
Q

What are some indirect effects of mealybug’s sap sucking?

A

They produce a lot of “honeydew” which collects over the bunches and foliage, and on which fungus grows, often giving it a sooty appearance.

210
Q

When and where was the first vine mealy bug indentified?

A

California’s Coachella Valley in the early 1990s

211
Q

Mealy bugs prefer a _____ environment.

A

humid

212
Q

When do mealy bugs become mature and reproduce?

A

early summer

213
Q

Which mealy bug can feed on roots?

A

Planococcus ficus

214
Q

What are mealy bugs and what do they do?

A

Small white insects of the family Cicadellidae which suck vine sap, infect new growth in the spring, typically at the undersurface of the leaves.

215
Q

What are phytoplasmas?

A

Pathogens similar to bacteria, yet symptomatically similar to viral diseases.

216
Q

How are viral diseases spread in the vineyard.

A

Through grafting or from transmission from insects.

217
Q

What climates are fungal diseases typically associated with?

A

warm and damp climates

218
Q

How do fungal diseases manifest?

A

As mildew or mold

219
Q

What are the 4 categories of diseases that affect the vine?

A

Fungal, viral, bacterial, phytoplasma.

220
Q

What is powdery mildew?

A

aka oidium

A fungal disease native to North America, spread to France & noticed in 1847. Green parts of the vine are attacked, and a cobweb like growth spreads. Ash-like spores soon show up on short, upright stalks.

221
Q

How are powdery mildew spores spread?

A

by wind

222
Q

What happens in vines from dormancy to budbreak if powdery mildew is present?

A

The fungus survives over winter inside buds or on surface. Fruit set can be reduced and ripening delayed.

223
Q

What happens to grapes infected with powdery mildew?

A

They lose fruity aromas, and are replaced by moldy, wet fur, and earthy characters.

224
Q

In what kind of weather does powdery mildew best spread?

A

Warm weather = 68-80 degrees F

225
Q

What is a common way to control powdery mildew?

A

Sulfur dust or wettable powders

226
Q

What is noble rot known as in Germany? In Italy?

A

Edelfaule, Muffa

227
Q

Why is later day dry weather vital to good wine, with regards to noble rot?

A

If there is unrelenting heat and dryness, then the fungus will not actually develop, and grapes will accumulate sugar, rather than undergoing the chemical transformations associated with noble rot. But the medium of warm, sunny, dry days after the moisture will create the idea growing conditions.

228
Q

What is the color transformation of grapes infected with the noble rot?

A

Golden -> pink or purple -> brown

229
Q

How does botrytis affect these 3 factors of a grape?…

Sugar
Tartaric Acid
Malic Acid

A

Sugar - Decrease by 1/3
Tartaric Acid - Decrease by 5/6
Malic Acid - Decrease by 1/3

230
Q

What does botrytis form in a grape?

A

Glycerol, acetic acid, gluconic acid, laccase, pectinase, other enzymes, botyticine (a yeast-inhibiting glycoprotein).

231
Q

What is glycerol?

A

A polyol and minor product of fermentation, usually present from 5-12 grams/liter, but in botrytized wines up to 25 g/l.

232
Q

What can keep grey rot at bay if the weather is cold?

A

Wind, by dehydrating the grapes and concentrating the sugars.

233
Q

What are examples of agrochemicals?

A

fungicides, insecticides, herbicides, bird repellents, plant growth regulators, rodenticides, soil fumigants

234
Q

A common feature of vineyards with a reputation for producing high-quality wines is that they are of _____ vigor, and that the canopy microclimate is characterized by _____ and _____ shade.

A
  • moderate to low
  • good exposure of leaves and fruit to the sun
  • little
235
Q

What does trimming do?

A

Cuts off excessive shoot growth in the summer.

236
Q

What does thinning do?

A

Removes unwanted shoots early in the season.

237
Q

What does leaf removal do?

A

Allows for more fruit exposure to sun and wind.

238
Q

What does shoot positioning do?

A

Makes trimming and leaf removal easy and effective.

239
Q

What is the canopy?

A

The part of the grapevine visible above ground.

240
Q

Generally, what are characteristics of soil desired for wine-growing grapes?

A

Well-drained, easily penetrable, good water retention.

241
Q

High soil pH contributes how to acidity in grapes?

A

higher acidity (low pH)

242
Q

Most of the world’s vineyards are grafted to what?

A

To American rootstock

243
Q

When did Phylloxera ravage most of the world’s vineyards?

A

From 1863 until about 1889.

244
Q

What is phylloxera?

A

A louse that feeds on the roots and leaves of grapevines.

245
Q

Which wine species were mostly used to hybridize vinifera in order to combat phylloxera?

A

Aestivalis, rupestris, riparia

246
Q

Besides influence on phylloxera, what are other factors to consider when selecting rootstock?

A

Ability to withstand diseases and drought, tolerance to salt and lime, effect on vine vigor.

247
Q

What year of a vine will typically be the first harvest year?

A

third

248
Q

Grapevines tend to mature/stabilize in what year?

A

6th

249
Q

What might Australians refer to Gobelet system vines as?

A

bush vines

250
Q

Where is the Gobelet system common?

A

Southern Rhone and Southern Italy

251
Q

If a vine is spur-pruned, what happens with the canes?

A

The upper cane will be removed during winter pruning, and the lower cane will be cut back to two buds.

252
Q

What happens with the buds on the cane?

A

They will each produce a shoot during budbreak.

253
Q

What happens to a green shoot after a season?

A

It becomes a woody cane.

254
Q

What is gobelet known as in…

Italy?
Spain?
Portugal?

A

Italy - Alberelli a vaso
Spain - En vaso
Portugal - En taca

255
Q

What is the Gobelet system?

A

Spurs are arranged on short arms in an approximate circle. The vines are free standing and this is the best used in low vigor vineyards in dry climates.

256
Q

What is the Guyot system?

A

Pruning that leaves 6 to 10 bud canes and for each a single 2-bud spur at the base. Double guyot has two canes and two spurs.

257
Q

Which is better for vigorous vineyards: spur pruning or cane pruning?

A

cane pruning

258
Q

What is spur pruning?

A

A form of winter pruning where canes are cut back to two bud spurs. It is quicker than cane pruning.

259
Q

What is cane pruning?

A

A winter pruning in which the buds are retained on longer canes, typically including 6-15 buds.

260
Q

Which kind of vines require a trellising system?

A

head-trained vines

261
Q

What is the difference between head-trained and Cordon trained?

A

Cordon trained vines have at least one permanent cane extending from the trunk. Head-trained vines don’t.

262
Q

What are the two main vine training classifications?

A

head trained or cordon trained

263
Q

In vine training and pruning, what must one prevent the canes from doing, and why?

A

From touching the ground so it doesn’t establish new roots.

264
Q

At what age do many commercial vineyards tend to decline?

A

20 years

265
Q

What is cordon de Royat?

A

Vine training, with a single spur-pruned permanent cordon extending horizontally from the trunk, rather than a 2-year-old cane. The vines are normally spur pruned to two bud spurs.

266
Q

what is VSP?

A

Vertical Shoot Positioning, where the canes are trellised upwards.

267
Q

How far apart are the average rows of GDC vines?

A

3m/10ft

268
Q

Who developed the GDC? When?

A

Professor Nelson Shaulis of Geneva Experiment Station in the early 1960s.

269
Q

What is Geneva Double Curtain?

A

A vine-training system where the canopy is divided into two pendent curtains, trained downwards from high cordons or canes.

270
Q

What is the tendone system?

What are the pitfalls of the system?

A

An overhead training system. Trunks are usually about 6 1/2 ft high, and wooden frames and cross wires support the poles.

High labor cost, dense canopy increases powdery mildew risk.

271
Q

In the 1960s, who showed that increased fruit and leaf exposure to sunlight improves both yield and grape composition and wine quality?

A

Professor Nelson Shaulis of Cornell University

272
Q

What early figure is known to prefer vines on hillsides?

A

Bacchus

273
Q

What is the purpose of canopy management?

A

To adjust the microclimate of a vine.

274
Q

What is a microclimate?

A

The climate in and around a vine canopy.

275
Q

What is aspect?

A

Degree and direction of a vine’s slope

276
Q

What is a mesoclimate?

A

The climate of a particular vineyard.

277
Q

What technology may be employed in battling frost?

A

Wine machines

278
Q

How much annual rainfall does a vine require?

A

20-30 inches

279
Q

what does cloud cover do to light and heat?

A

It doesn’t really impact transmission of light for photosynthesis, but it will affect the heat on a vine.

280
Q

The minimum amount of sunshine required to support viticulture is about what?

A

1,300 hours.

281
Q

What happens during photosynthesis?

A

Plants convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds, including sugars.

282
Q

Why does the CHSI work better in California?

A

Temperatures in California are more closely correlated with other climatic factors.

283
Q

Why is the CHSI cut off at 50 degrees F?

A

It is based on the hypothesis that grapevines do not grow if the temperature is below 50 degrees F.

284
Q

Who created the CHSI?
Where?
When?

A

AJ Winkler and Maynard Amerine, UC Davis, 1944.

285
Q

What is the range for CHSI Region V?

A

More than 4,000 degree days F.

286
Q

What is the range for CHSI Region IV?

A

3,500 - 4,000 degree days F.

287
Q

What is the range for CHSI Region III?

A

3,000 - 3,500 degree days F.

288
Q

What is the range for CHSI Region II?

A

2,500 - 3,000 degree days F.

289
Q

What is the range for CHSI Region I?

A

Less than 2,500 degree days F.

290
Q

How is the California Heat Summation Index calculated?

A

Days in growing season (April 1 - Oct 31 OR Oct 1 - April 30)

multiplied by

Mean number of degrees over 50 degrees F for that month.

Each month totals are added together.

291
Q

What is the direct method of classifying climates solely on temperature?

A

California Heat Summation Index

292
Q

To successfully ripen, red grapes require what average summer temperature? How about white grapes?

A

Red - 70

White - 66

293
Q

The vine prefers a mean annual temperature level of what?

A

Between 50-68F, with ideal temperature at 57F.

294
Q

What is grey rot?

A

Botrytised grapes from relentless moisture. Never good.

295
Q

What is pH?

A

Measure of the activity of the hydrogen ion.

296
Q

What is the BBCH scale?

A

Biological scale that describes the grapes phenological development.

297
Q

The annual life cycle of the vine begins with what?

A

budbreak

298
Q

Generally, at what temperatures do vines emerge from dormancy?

A

50F

299
Q

When does budbreak normally occur in the Northern Hemisphere?

A

March

300
Q

What are embryo bunches?

A

Small green clusters that form on the shoots by mid-April.

301
Q

How long after budbreak does flowering occur?

A

6-13 weeks

302
Q

The process of fertilization after flowering leads to what?

A

fruit set

303
Q

What is the average fruit set in percentage from the embryo berries?

A

30%

304
Q

When do the berries typically stop enlarging?

A

August

305
Q

What happens at veraison?

A

Sugars move from leaf system to the fruit.

306
Q

What is cane ripening?

A

aka - aoutement

The stage in the development of the shoot when the stem matures, and changes from green to yellow, and ultimately brown. Periderm tissue is added, and carbohydrate reserves are added. This occurs about the same time as veraison.

307
Q

When is fertilization applied?

A

In the fall after harvest.

308
Q

What is seed lignification?

A

When the seed becomes woody through the formation and deposit of lignin in cell walls.

309
Q

What are the stages of a vine’s life cycle?

A 
Bud Break
Flowering
Fruit Set
Veraison
Harvest
310
Q

What is in a vine bleed?

A

water, organic acids, hormones, minerals, and sugars.

311
Q

When does a vine bleed happen?

A

The start of bud break.

312
Q

How/why does a vine bleed?

A

Through the wounds left over from pruning the vine.

313
Q

Where are vine buds?

A

Between the stem and petiole (leaf stem).

314
Q

What is inside a vine bud?

A

Three primordial shoots

315
Q

What starts when shoots sprout tiny leaves?

A

photsynthesis

316
Q

In warm climates, shoots can grow as much as _____ per day.

A

3 cm

317
Q

Budbreaks are most uniform after what kind of winter?

A

A cold winter without winter freeze.

318
Q

What disease can develop on vines injured by winter freeze?

A

crown gall

319
Q

How does a vine survive better in a cold winter?

A

Storing up carb reserves at the end of the growing season.

320
Q

What does late pruning do to budbreaks? What is a benefit of this?

A

It delays budbreak.

This can reduce the risk of winter frost.

321
Q

When there is minimal pruning, which buds preferentially burst?

Why?

A

Buds near the ends of canes.

This helps vines climb trees and seek sunlight in a forest habitat.

322
Q

What is the calyptra?

A

fused cap of petals

323
Q

What happens to the calyptra during flowering?

A

It is shed

324
Q

What happens to ovules during flowering?

A

They are fertilized.

325
Q

What makes a vine hermaphroditic?

A

Possessing male stamens and female ovaries.

326
Q

What is an anther?

A

The part of the stamen that releases pollen.

327
Q

What happens in cross-pollenation?

A

Pollen from another vine fertilizes the ovary on a vine, which produces seeds as the flower begins transformation into a grape berry.

328
Q

When does fruit set normally take place in the Northern Hemisphere?

A

May

329
Q

What is the average of fertilized flowers on the vine?

A

30

330
Q

What is couloure?

A

Viticultural hazard that is the result of metabolic reactions to weather conditions that cause a failure of grapes to develop after flowering.

331
Q

When does couloure usually happen?

A

spring

332
Q

What are some grape varieties with high proclivity to couloure?

A

Grenache, Malbec, Merlot, Muscat Ottonel

333
Q

What is a vine doing when couloure happens?

A

Conserving carbohydratic resources due to scarcity.

334
Q

What is millerandage?

A

When grape bunches vary greatly in size. Berries with no seeds to protect will be smaller.

335
Q

What grapes are prone to millerandage?

A

Gewurztraminer, Chardonnay clones 1A and Mendoza

336
Q

What is fruit set known as?

A

Nouaison

337
Q

Most wine grape varieties contain up to _____ seeds.

A

4

338
Q

What is shatter?

A

Flowers that do not set, but instead fall from the bunch.

339
Q

What does parthenocarpic mean?

A

seedless

340
Q

Where in the grape are the anthocyanins located?

A

skins

341
Q

What is the average weight of a “premium” wine grape?

What’s a normal weight?

A

1 to 2 grams

3 to 10 grams

342
Q

Berries are about ____% of their final size when they enter veraison.

A

50

343
Q

In veraison, the chlorophyll is being replaced by what, in the skins?

A

Anthocyanins in red grapes, carotenoids in white grapes.

344
Q

What are anthocyanins?

A

Water-soluble vacuolar pigments. They are also flavonoids.

345
Q

What are carotenoids?

A

Organic pigments in cholorplasts and chromoplasts of plants.

346
Q

What is engustment?

A

The softening of berries as they build up sugars and ripen.

347
Q

What accumulates in the first week of veraison?

A

Glucose and Fructose

348
Q

Which berries typically undergo veraison first?

A

The berries/clusters most exposed to warmth.

349
Q

Limited water stress can _____ verasion.

A

encourage

350
Q

What happens to the leaves after harvest, right before dormancy?

A

They turn from green to yellow

351
Q

Where are carbohydrate reserves stored?

A

In the roots and trunks.

352
Q

What are the 4 types of days on a biodynamic calendar?

A

Fruit, flower, leaf and root.

353
Q

Which tends to harvest later, organic or non-organic vineyards?

A

Non-organic

354
Q

How much on average are yields lower in organic vineyards?

A

20%

355
Q

When is herbicide/pesticide usage stopped? Why?

A

Several weeks before harvest, so that the grapes are not contaminated.

356
Q

How do mechanical harvesters commonly harvest grapes?

A

By sharply shaking vines in different directions.

357
Q

What happens to seed color in phenolic ripeness?

A

Seeds should change from green to brown.

358
Q

What happens in the grape when Brix reaches 25-26?

A

Synthesis stops, but sugar concentration continues to increase as the result of desiccation.

359
Q

What is the math applied to determine potential alcohol from Brix?

A

Multiply Brix by 0.55

360
Q

What is the general range of yield for quality grapes? For bulk grapes?

A

35-80 hectolitres/hectare

100-150 hectolitres/hectare

361
Q

For how long and under what temperature do vines need dormancy?

A

1-2 months, under 10 degrees C or 50 degrees F

362
Q

At what temperature does photosynthesis stop?

A

40 degrees C or 104 degrees F

363
Q

Why may roses be planted at ends of vine rows?

A

To give early warnings of pests and diseases.

364
Q

What is selection massale?

A

A breeding method wherein a large number of plants having the desirable traits are harvested individually from a standing crop.

365
Q

What is ampelography?

A

The field of botany concerned with identification and classification of grapevines.

366
Q

Vitis berlandieri rootstock is now often used on what soil?

A

chalk

367
Q

Vitis rupestris rootstock is often used on what kind of soil?

A

calcareous

368
Q

Vitis riparia rootstock is often used on what kind of soil?

A

clay

369
Q

When and where in Europe did phylloxera infection start?

A

1862, at Roquemaure on Rhone’s right bank, just N of Avignon.

370
Q

What is the typical damage process from phylloxera influence?

A

When damage reduces the pressure of sap below a critical level, phylloxera leave the vine and migrate to a fresh one. But the damaged sites provide entry points for other injections, such as fungal pathogens.

371
Q

What is phylloxera’s original name? What does it mean?

A

Phylloxera vastatrix

Phylloxera the destroyer

372
Q

How big is phylloxera?

A

1-3 mm long

373
Q

When did the first documented mentioning of Pinot Noir occur?

A

1375

374
Q

Where and how were the most ancient traces of vines found?

A

From the Hajii Firuz Neolithic complex in the northern Zagros Mountains of Iran - from pottery dating back to around 5400 BC - contained traces of tartaric acid.

375
Q

How many species are in the Vitis genus?

A

About 60

376
Q

What is translocation?

A

Movement of sugars, nutrients and water from one part of the grape vine to another part.

377
Q

What is a tenuta?

A

A farm or wine estate.

378
Q

What is szamorodni?

A

wine grapes not sorted by their degree of botrytis.

379
Q

What is remontage?

A

Pumping over, also to repair a vineyard after a heavy and erosive rain storm.

380
Q

What is a recoltant?

A

Someone who harvests their own grapes.

381
Q

What is passerillee?

A

Grapes that have begun to shrivel on the vine.

382
Q

What is lutte raisonee?

A

Type of viticulture that tries to avoid synthetic farming, more sustainable than organic.

383
Q

What is integrieter pflanzenschutz?

A

Type of viticulture that treats the ground and planet as humanly as possible.

384
Q

How big is a hectoliter, compared to gallons and liters?

A

26.418 gallons or 100 liters

385
Q

How big is a hectare compared to an acre?

A

2.471 acres

386
Q

What is hauptlese?

A

Main harvest

387
Q

What is gerbstoft?

A

tannin

388
Q

What is foulage?

A

crushing, treading

389
Q

What is flureinigung?

A

Remodelling of vineyards to make them easier to harvest, this reduced the overall number of vineyards

390
Q

What is flachbogen?

A

guyot trellis system

391
Q

What is eraflage?

A

destalking or destemming

392
Q

What is einzelpfahlerziehung?

A

A vine trained to an individual stake…this is used on very steep slopes.

393
Q

What is egrappage?

A

destemming

394
Q

What is effeuillage?

A

leaf thinning of the canopy

395
Q

What is casca?

A

Leftover grapes skins and seeds

396
Q

What is bentonite?

A

An aluminosilicate clay that swells in water and has powerful properties of absportion

397
Q

What is a bench graft?

A

grafting done in a nursery

398
Q

What is aspersion?

A

Spraying the buds or grapes with water to protect against late frosts or freezes. The water turns to ice which protects the buds from colder temperatures.

399
Q

What is accolage?

A

The process of tying the vine branches to the trellis frame.

400
Q

A half ton of red grapes yields how many gallons?

A

75-80 gallons, or 284-303 liters.

MS Exam - Viticulture (7 decks)

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