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General Terms Flashcards

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1
Q

molecule

A

atom + atom

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2
Q

compound

A

molecules w/ dif. types of atoms

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3
Q

element

A

single type of atom

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4
Q

glycogen

A

glucose storage for animals

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5
Q

starch

A

glucose storage for plants

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6
Q

cellulose

A

plant cell wall

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7
Q

chitin

A

fungi cell wall and arthropod exoskeleton

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8
Q

peptidoglycan

A

bacterial cell wall

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9
Q

Purines

A

Adenine, Guanine

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10
Q

Pyrimidines

A

Thymine, Uracil, Cytosine

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11
Q

Adenine-Thymine

A

2 hydrogen bonds

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12
Q

Guanine-Cytosine

A

3 hydrogen bonds

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13
Q

Euchromatin

A

loose genetic material (active, available for transcription)

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14
Q

Heterochromatin

A

tight genetic material (inactive, fully condensed)

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15
Q

Helicase

A

unwinds double helix

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16
Q

DNA Polymerase

A

adds nucleotides to an existing strand (5’ to 3’)

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17
Q

Ligase

A

brings together Okazaki fragments

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18
Q

Topoisomerase

A

cuts and rejoins helix

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19
Q

RNA Primase

A

catalyses the synthesis of RNA primers

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20
Q

Telomeres

A

at the end of strands to protect them

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21
Q

Simple diffusion

A

high to low, hydrophobic

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22
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

high to low, hydrophilic

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23
Q

Active transport

A

low to high, hydrophilic (sodium, potassium, calcium, all ions, glucose) and hydrophobic

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24
Q

Endocytosis

A

phagocytosis and pinocytosis (requires ATP)

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25
Q

Osmosis

A

low solute to high solute

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26
Q

Vacuole

A

1 membrane, waste and material storage

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27
Q

Ribosomes

A

0 membranes, protein synthesis

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28
Q

Smooth ER

A

1 membrane, substance transport around cell

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29
Q

Rough ER

A

1 membrane, synthesise membrane proteins or secrete proteins

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30
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

1 membrane, sorts and packages proteins

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31
Q

Mitochondria

A

2 membranes, cellular respiration

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32
Q

Lysosomes

A

1 membrane, digests foreign substances and worn-out organelles

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33
Q

Centrioles

A

1 membrane, spindle fiber formation during mitosis

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34
Q

Nucleus

A

2 membranes, control center and genetic info

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35
Q

Nucleolus

A

1 membrane, ribosome synthesis

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36
Q

Cell membrane

A

1 membrane, regulates transport in and out of cell

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37
Q

Glycolysis

A

Cytoplasm, anaerobic

C6H12O6 + 2ATP -> 2 Pyruvate + 4ATP + 2NADH

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38
Q

Fermentation

A

2 Pyruvate reduced either to (2 Ethanol + CO2) or (2 Lactic acid) simultaneously 2NADH oxidised to 2NAD

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39
Q

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex

A

Matrix, aerobic
Pyruvate into Acetyl CoA
NAD to NADH
CO2 released as waste

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40
Q

Kreb’s Cycle

A

Matrix, aerobic

Products: oxaloacetic acid, NADH, ATP, FADH, CO2

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41
Q

Electron Transport Chain

A

Inner membrane, aerobic

Energy phosphorylates ADP to ATP

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42
Q

polycistronic

A

prokaryote transcription

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43
Q

monocistronic

A

eukaryote transcription

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44
Q

Transcription

A

DNA to mRNA; nucleus

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45
Q

Translation

A

mRNA to proteins; cytoplasm/ribosome

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46
Q

tRNA

A

carries amino acids from the cytoplasm to ribosomes

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47
Q

start codon

A

AUG

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48
Q

stop codon(s)

A

UAA, UAG, UGA

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49
Q

codominance

A

heterozygote expresses both alleles (e.g. blood type AB)

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50
Q

incomplete dominance

A

mix of dominant and recessive alleles in phenotype

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51
Q

law of dominance

A

one allele is dominant over the other

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52
Q

law of segregation

A

two copies of a gene segregate and each gamete only gets one of the alleles

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53
Q

law of independent assortment

A

traits can segregate and recombine independently of other traits (linked genes violate this)

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54
Q

test cross

A

crossing with a recessive to determine genotype

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55
Q

SAT pedigree chart hints

A

1) recessive conditions skip generations

2) sex-linked if more males are impacted

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56
Q

Heterotroph Hypothesis

A

first living organism was a heterotroph

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57
Q

speciation

A

formation of a new species by evolution

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58
Q

divergent evolution

A

2 pops. of same species end up having dif. behaviours and traits (speciation is an extreme form of this)

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59
Q

convergent evolution

A

production of traits and behaviour between two separate 2 dif. pop/species (NEVER results in speciation)

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60
Q

analogous structures

A

Same structure, different ancestors (convergent evolution). Examples: wings in birds and insects

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61
Q

homologous structures

A

different structure, same ancestors (divergent evolution). Examples: human arm and whale flipper

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62
Q

vestigial structure

A

useless e.g. appendix in humans

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63
Q

central nervous system (CNS)

A

brain + spinal cord

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64
Q

cerebrum

A

conscious mind, voluntary actions

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65
Q

cerebellum

A

coordinates muscle movement & balance; coordination

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66
Q

medulla

A

involuntary actions; primitive region

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67
Q

hypothalamus

A

homeostasis

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68
Q

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

A

somatic or autonomic nervous system

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69
Q

somatic nervous system

A

voluntary; skeletal muscles (w/ acetylcholine)

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70
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

involuntary; sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system

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71
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A

increases body activity; fight or flight; norepinephrine

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72
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A

decreases body activity; rest or digest; acetylcholine

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73
Q

peptide-based hormones

A

bind to receptors on extracellular surface; turns enzymes on/off; faster; examples: insulin, prolactin, glycogen

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74
Q

steroid hormones

A

bind to receptors on intracellular level; modifies transcription; slower; examples: aldosterone, estrogen, testosterone

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75
Q

anterior pituitary gland

A

growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, luteinising hormone, prolactin

(GH; TSH; FSH; ACTH; LH; Prolactin)

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76
Q

posterior pituitary gland

A

oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

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77
Q

thyroid gland

A

thyroxine, calcitonin

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78
Q

parathyroid gland

A

parathormone

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79
Q

adrenal medulla

A

epinephrine, norepinephrine

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80
Q

adrenal cortex

A

glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, sex steroids

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81
Q

pancreas

A

hormones (insulin and glucagon) and digestive enzymes (exocrine role)

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82
Q

gonads

A

testosterone, estrogen, progesterone

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83
Q

blood

A

50% plasma (mostly water + glucose, hormones, ions, gases, protein (albumin, fibrinogen, lipoproteins)) + 45% red blood cells (biconcave cell (w/ no nucleus) containing haemoglobin) + 5% white blood cells and platelets

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84
Q

white blood cells

A

phagocytes (eat) or lymphocytes (B-cells and T-cells)

85
Q

B-cells

A

make antibodies, stick around as militia

86
Q

T-cells

A

helper cells that help all lymphocytes divide and proliferate or killer cells that kill cells that have been infected

87
Q

platelets

A

help blood clotting by secreting substances that ultimately convert fibrinogen to fibrin

88
Q

type AB

A

universal recipient

89
Q

type O

A

universal donor

90
Q

arteries

A

away from heart; blood pressure is high; thick, muscular wall; branches into capillaries

91
Q

capillaries

A

site of exchange; smallest blood vessels; slow and low; merge to form venules which merge to form veins

92
Q

veins

A

return blood to heart; low pressure; muscle/skeletal contractions move blood; valves to ensure correct direction; no muscular walls

93
Q

lymphatic system

A

network of vessels that recapture fluid and filters it with lots of white blood cells (via lymph nodes) and returns it to blood

94
Q

blood pathway

A

vena cavae- right atrium- right ventricle- pulmonary artery- lungs- pulmonary veins- left atrium- left ventricle- aorta- body- (vena cavae)

95
Q

atrioventricular valves (AV)

A

tricuspid and mitral

96
Q

semilunar valves (SV)

A

aortic and pulmonary

97
Q

inspiration

A

chest cavity increases, decrease in air pressure, air rushes into lungs, diaphragm contracts/flattens out/lowers

98
Q

expiration

A

chest cavity decreases, increase in air pressure, air rushes out, diaphragm relaxes/curves upwards

99
Q

pH of blood

A

7.4

100
Q

vitamin A

A

retinal for slight

101
Q

vitamin B

A

cellular respiration, DNA replication

102
Q

vitamin C

A

collagen

103
Q

vitamin D

A

calcium absorption

104
Q

vitamin E

A

protects cell membranes

105
Q

vitamin K

A

blood clotting

106
Q

iron

A

hemoglobin

107
Q

calcium

A

strong bones, teeth, and for muscle contraction

108
Q

iodine

A

thyroxine

109
Q

urine

A

urea acid (amino acids) + uric acid (nucleic acids) + creatinine (muscle metabolism)

110
Q

bones

A

rigid substance made up. of cells embedded in a solid calcium-phosphate matrix. Supports the body, protects soft organs, produces blood cells, stores minerals

111
Q

cartilage

A

ends of bones at the joins; shock absorber to prevent bones from rubbing against each other

112
Q

muscle components

A

actin + myosin = sacromere -> myofibril -> muscle cell/fiber -> fascicle => whole muscle

113
Q

epidermis

A

surface; dead skin cells

114
Q

dermis

A

blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, glands

115
Q

hypodermis

A

protects and insulates body // fat

116
Q

endoderm

A

internal structures and organs

117
Q

mesoderm

A

bones, blood vessels, muscles, heart and non-glandular organs

118
Q

embryonic development stages

A

gametes - fertilisation - zygote - cleavage - morula - blastocyst - implantation - gastrulation - neuralation - fetus - birth

119
Q

cuticle

A

waxy layer under epidermis that protects leaf and traps water

120
Q

palisade layer

A

just under surface of leaf: most photosynthesis occurs here

121
Q

spongy cells

A

beneath palisade: important for gas exchange, also carries out photosynthesis (but less)

122
Q

stomates

A

gas exchange; controlled by guard cells

123
Q

light-dependant reactions

A

membranes of thylakoids; water is split into hydrogen ions and oxygen; solar energy converted into usable energy (NADPH and ATP)

124
Q

light-independant reactions

A

stroma of chloroplast; calvin cycle/carbon fixation, ribulose biphosphate into 2x glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

125
Q

xylem

A

transports water and minerals; tracheids and vessel elements

126
Q

phloem

A

transports products of photosynthesis; sieve cells and companion cells

127
Q

root hairs

A

increase surface area for absorption of water and minerals

128
Q

stamen

A

anther + filament

129
Q

pistil

A

stigma + style + pollen tube + (ovary + ovule)

130
Q

anther

A

makes pollen w/ microspores

131
Q

ovule

A

forms megaspores (which can divide to form eggs and polar bodies). Becomes seed in reproduction process.

132
Q

endosperm

A

food storing tissue that surrounds the embryo

133
Q

ovary

A

becomes a fruit in reproduction process

134
Q

fixed-action patterns

A

preprogrammed stereotypical behaviour triggered by specific stimuli

135
Q

imprinting

A

recognition of some object as “mother”

136
Q

classical conditioning

A

neutral signal leads to a reflex

137
Q

operant conditioning

A

reward/punishment system

138
Q

insight learning

A

ability to approach new situations and figure it out -> reasoning

139
Q

phototropism

A

towards light

140
Q

negative gravitropism

A

stem upwards

141
Q

positive gravitropism

A

root downwards

142
Q

thigmotropism

A

along a surface

143
Q

circadian rhythm

A

when a biological clock makes an organism do something on a daily basis.

144
Q

symbiosis

A

different species sharing a living space

145
Q

mutualism

A

both organisms benefit

146
Q

parasitism

A

one benefits, one harmed

147
Q

commensalism

A

one benefits, one is neutral

148
Q

abiotic

A

non-living

149
Q

biotic

A

living

150
Q

biological organisation

A

cell - tissue - organ - organism - population - community - ecosystem - biome - biosphere

151
Q

population

A

group of individuals in a particular area that can interbreed and therefore share the same gene pool

152
Q

community

A

group of populations that live in a particular environment, interact but not reproductively

153
Q

niche

A

a way an organism lives in its environment

154
Q

competition

A

two dif. organisms with the same niche

155
Q

coevolution

A

alternate evolution of two species based on their interactions with each other

156
Q

decomposers

A

bacteria/fungi; eat the dead

157
Q

ecological succession

A

gradual change in an ecological community

158
Q

pioneer organism

A

first to start living in the previously uninhabited area

159
Q

climax community

A

succession ended, stable community

160
Q

ecosystem

A

community + the environment it lives in

161
Q

transpiration

A

water vapor escaping stomates

162
Q

evaporation

A

water vapor escaping body of water

163
Q

respiration

A

carbon returned to atmosphere

164
Q

photosynthesis

A

carbon removed from atmosphere

165
Q

legumes

A

plants with their own nitrogen-fixing bacteria

166
Q

biomes

A

large areas classified by their ecosystems

167
Q

the tundra

A

permafrost, deep root growth is difficult

168
Q

the taiga

A

coniferous forest

169
Q

the deciduous forest

A

lots of rain, hot and cold seasons, trees drop and regrow leaves

170
Q

the grasslands

A

low-growing plants, fertile soil, insects are dominant herbivores.

171
Q

tropical rain forest

A

highest rainfall, greatest diversity, very tall trees

172
Q

the desert

A

driest, flora and fauna adapted to arid environment.

173
Q

intertidal zone

A

marine; where land and water meet

174
Q

neritic zone

A

marine; extends from intertidal zone to continental shelf

175
Q

oceanic zone

A

marine; open ocean, very little nutrient concentration

176
Q

pelagic

A

open water

177
Q

bethic

A

ocean bottom

178
Q

abyssal zone

A

marine; deep under oceanic zone; no light

179
Q

photic zone

A

light for photosynthesis

180
Q

aphotic zone

A

no light for photosynthesis, nutrients come from photic zone

181
Q

littoral zone

A

freshwater; near shore, many plants, wide variety of consumers

182
Q

limnetic zone

A

freshwater; farther from shore, light for photosynthesis, primary consumers thrive

183
Q

profundal zone

A

freshwater; underneath limnetic zone; aphotic region; sinking nutrients; primary consumers are food for secondary consumers

184
Q

human impact

A

greenhouse effect, o-zone depletion, acid rain, desertification, deforestation, pollution, reduction in biodiversity

185
Q

adaptive radiation

A

numerous species from one common ancestor

186
Q

tendons

A

bone to muscle

187
Q

ligaments

A

bone to bone

188
Q

chromosomal disorders

A

down syndrome, klinefelter’s syndrome

189
Q

autosomal recessive disorders

A

PKU, cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sach’s

190
Q

autosomal dominant disorders

A

huntington’s disease

191
Q

sex-linked recessive

A

color blindness and hemophilia

192
Q

hardy-weinberg principle

A

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

p^2 = homozygous dominant
q^2 = homozygous recessive
2pq = heterozygous
193
Q

silent mutation

A

not visible in phenotype because the protein product remains unchanged

194
Q

zooplankton

A

primary consumer in an aquatic ecosystem

195
Q

directional selection

A

one extreme favoured

- peppered moths

196
Q

stabilising selection

A

neither extreme favoured

197
Q

disruptive selection

A

both extremes favoured

- balanced polymorphism

198
Q

evidence for evolution

A
  1. fossil record
  2. comparative anatomy + biochemistry + embryology
  3. molecular biology
  4. biogeography
199
Q

types of natural selection

A

stabilising selection, diversifying or disruptive selection, and directional selection

200
Q

sources of variation in a population

A

mutation, genetic drift and gene flow

201
Q

single point mutation

A

introduces a new allele in the population

202
Q

genetic drift

A

change in the gene pool due to chance

  • bottleneck effect
  • founder effect
203
Q

the bottleneck effect

A

natural disasters reduce the population, and therefore the gene pool. Certain alleles may be then under or overrepresented compared with the original population.

204
Q

the founder effect

A

when a small population breaks away from a larger population to colonise a new area, rare alleles may be overrepresented

205
Q

gene flow

A

movement of alleles into or out of a population; can result from migration

206
Q

Hardy-Weinberg factors that MUST be true if a population is stable…

A

1) Population is large
2) Population is isolated
3) No Mutations
4) Mating must be random
5) No natural selection

207
Q

Forms of Isolation

A

1) Geographic Isolation
2) Polyploidy
3) Habitat Isolation (species encounter each other rarely in their area)
4) Behavioural Isolation (firefly example)
5) Temporal Isolation (if a flower becomes sexually mature earlier)
6) Reproductive Isolation (anatomical incompatibility: Great Dane x Chihuahua)

208
Q

Patterns of Evolution

A

1) Divergent evolution
2) Convergent evolution
3) Parallel evolution
4) Coevolution
5) Adaptive radiation

209
Q

Theories of Evolution

A

1) Gradualism
2) Punctuated Equilibrium
3) Spontaneous Generation

SAT Biology (1 decks)

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