General terms Flashcards
What is a hypothesis?
Precise statement which states the relationship between the variables being investigated.
What is the aim of a study?
General statement made by researcher to tell us the purpose of their study.
What are the 2 types of hypothesis?
Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis.
What are the 2 types of alternative hypothesis?
Directional and non-directional.
What is a null hypothesis?
States that the independent variable will not have an effect on the dependent variable.
What is a directional hypothesis?
States the direction of the relationship shown between variables.
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
States that the IV will effect the DV but not the direction of the relationship.
What is an independent variable?
Variable that is manipulated by the researcher or changes to have an effect on the DV.
What is a dependent variable?
What is measured by the researcher and has been changed by the IV.
What is operationalising variables?
When the researcher is clearly defining variables in terms of how they are being measured.
What is an extraneous variable?
Any variable other than the IV that affects the DV and doesn’t vary systematically with the IV.
What is a confounding variable?
A variable other than the IV that affects the DV but does change systematically with the IV.
Examples of extraneous variables?
Lighting, age of participants.
Example of confounding variables?
Time of day
What are demand characteristics?
Any clue the researcher or research situation may give which allows participants to guess the aim of the investigation.
What are investigator effects?
Unwanted influence from the researchers behaviour, either conscious or unconscious, on the results.
What is randomisation?
Using chance to reduce the effects of bias from investigator effects.
What is standardisation?
Using standard procedures and instructions for all participants involved.
What are the different types of experimental method?
Laboratory, field, quasi and natural.
What is a laboratory experiment?
An experiment that takes place in a special environment where different variables can be carefully controlled.
What is a field experiment?
An experiment conducted in a more natural environment but with variables still being well controlled.
What is a quasi experiment?
An experiment where the IV has not been determined by the researcher as it naturally exists.
What is a natural experiment?
An experiment in which the IV is not brought about by the researcher and would’ve happened without the researcher being there.
What are the strengths of a laboratory experiment?
High degree of control - experimenters control all variables leading to greater accuracy.
Replication - researchers can repeat experiments to check results.
What are the limitations to laboratory experiments?
Experimenters bias - can effect results and participants may be influenced by expectations.
Low ecological validity - high degree of control make situation artificial and unlike real life.
What are the strengths of a field experiment?
Naturalistic - more natural behaviours so high ecological validity.
Controlled IV
What are the limitations to field experiments?
Ethical considerations - Invasion of privacy and likely to be no informed consent.
Loss of control - over extraneous variables so precise replication not possible.
What are the strengths of a quasi experiment?
Controlled conditions - makes it replicable, likely to have high internal validity.
What are the limitations to quasi experiments?
Cannot randomly allocate participants - may be confounding variables making it harder to determine cause & effect relationship.
What are the strengths of a natural experiment?
Provides opportunities - research would’ve otherwise been impossible due to practical/ethical reasons.
High external validity - dealing with real life issues.
What are the limitations of natural experiments?
Natural occurring events - can be rare making it difficult to replicate so hard to generalise findings.
Difficult to randomise - confounding and extraneous variables become a problem.
What is sampling?
How the researcher decides to select participants for their experiment.
What are the sampling methods? (5)
Opportunity
Random
Systematic
Stratified
Volunteer
What is opportunity sampling?
Participants happen to be available at the time and are recruited conveniently.
What are the strengths of opportunity sampling?
Easy method, saves time and isn’t costly.
What are the limitations of opportunity sampling?
Not representative of whole population so lacks generalisability. Researcher bias as researcher can control who they want to select.
What is random sampling?
All members of population have equal chance to be selected. Each member of population is allocated a number which is then selected using a random number generator or lottery method.
What are the strengths of random sampling?
No researcher bias and they have no influence on who is picked.
What are the limitations of random sampling?
Time consuming as you need a list of sampling frame and contacting them takes time. Volunteer bias, some may refuse to take part and can make the sample unrepresentative.
What is systematic sampling?
A predetermined system is used where every nth member is selected from sampling frame.
What are the strengths of systematic sampling?
Avoids researcher bias and is usually representative.
What are the limitations to systematic sampling?
Not truly unbiased unless you use a random number generator and then start systematic sample.
What is stratified sampling?
Composition of sample reflects varying proportions of people in particular subgroubs within the wider population.
What are the strengths of stratified sampling?
No researcher bias, selection within each stratum is random.
Produces representative data so generalisation is possible.
What are the limitations of stratified sampling?
Time consuming to identify strata and contact people.
Complete representation of target population not possible as identified strata cannot reflect all differences between wider population.
What is volunteer sampling?
Participant offers to take part in response to an advert or when asked to.
What are the strengths of volunteer sampling?
Quick access to participants, easy and not time consuming.
As participants have willingly taken part they are more likely to cooperate.
What are limitations of volunteer sampling?
Volunteer bias, study may attract particular profile of person affecting generalisability.
Motivations (such as money) could be driving to participation so participants may not tale study seriously.
What are the different types of experimental design?
Independent groups, repeated measures and matched pairs.
What is independent groups design?
Participants only perform in one condition of the independent variable.
What are the strengths of independent groups design?
No order effects
Participants are less likely to guess the aim of study eliminating demand characteristics.
What are limitations of independent groups design?
No control over participant variables which can cause changes to DV.
Need more participants than other designs in order to gather the same amount of data.
What is repeated measures design?
Same participants take part in all conditions of the IV.
What are the strengths of repeated measures?
Eliminates participant variables.
Less participants needed, not as time consuming.
What are the limitations of repeated measures design?
Order effects, e.g participants may be bored by second condition effecting performance.
What is matched pairs design?
Pairs of participants matched on variable that has been found to effect DV. One member or each pair does one condition while the other partakes in the other condition.
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale version of an investigation which is done before the real investigation is undertaken.
What is a single-blind procedure?
A research method in which the researchers do not tell the participants if they are being given the test treatment or the control treatment.
What is a double-blind procedure?
A research method in which neither the participants or the researcher knows who is experiencing a particular treatment.
What is a control condition?
Sets a baseline for results from the experimental condition can be compared to.
What are the different types of observation technique?
Naturalistic, controlled, overt, covert, participant & non-participant
What is a naturalistic observation?
Watching and recording behaviour in the setting where it would normally take place.
What are the strengths of a naturalistic observation?
-High ecological validity
-High external validity as done in a natural environment
What are the limitations of a naturalistic observation?
-Low ecological validity if participants become aware that they are being watched
- Replication can be difficult
-Uncontrolled confounding and extraneous variables are presented…?
