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Biology HSC > General Terms > Flashcards

General Terms Flashcards

1
Q

Eukaryotes

A

organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Eg. all animals, plants, fungi, and protists, as well as most algae.

Eukaryotes may be either single-celled or multicellular.

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2
Q

Prokaryotes

A

a single-celled organism that lacks a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. All prokaryotic cells are encased by a cell wall. Eg. bacteria.

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3
Q

Alleles

A

Version of DNA sequence. Matching genes; one from our biological mother, one from our biological father.

Originates as a result of mutation increases genetic diversity.

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4
Q

Genotype

A

The genetic makeup of an individual organism or the specific combination of alleles for a given gene. Can determine physical traits such as eye colour.

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5
Q

Phenotype

A

An individual’s observable traits, such as height, eye color and blood type. This is determined by both their genomic makeup (genotype) and environmental factors.

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6
Q

Heterozygous

A

Used to describe a cell, a nucleus, or an individual organism that carries different or non-identical alleles for a particular trait. (Rr)

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7
Q

Homozygous

A

Having two identical alleles of a particular gene or genes. (RR or rr)

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8
Q

Recessive

A

A gene that can be masked by a dominant gene.

In order to have a trait that is expressed by a recessive gene, such as blue eyes, you must get the gene for blue eyes from both of your parents.

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9
Q

Transcription & Process

A

The transfer of genetic instructions in DNA to mRNA in the nucleus.

It includes three steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. After the mRNA is processed, it carries the instructions to a ribosome in the cytoplasm.

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10
Q

Translation & Process

A

Translation is the process that takes the information passed from DNA as messenger RNA and turns it into a series of amino acids bound together with peptide bond

It occurs in the cytoplasm following DNA transcription and, like transcription, has three stages: initiation, elongation and termination.

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11
Q

Protein Synthesis –> Transcription & Translation

A

DNA in the nucleus unzips with the help of an enemy.

(Transcription occurs)

mRNA Is carried to the lytoplan and then attaches to Ribosome.

(Translation occurs)

3 base codes (tnna anticoden) binds with a amino acid and protein.

Structure and characteristics begin to from.

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12
Q

Mitosis

A

Single parent cell devices to make 2 new daughter cells.

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13
Q

Meiosis

A

Cell devision reduces the number of chromosomes in the parent cell by half and produces 4 gamete cells. Ensures genetic variation.

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14
Q

Interphase

A

Period of cell growth and normal activity. DNA duplicates into two copies of chromosomes.

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15
Q

Telophase

A

Telophase is the fifth and final phase of mitosis, the process that separates the duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells

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16
Q

Asexual Reproduction

A

Needs only one parent. The parent cell replicates and divides generating offsprings that are genetically identical.

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17
Q

Sexual Reproduction

A

Two parents. Hapolid (n) games from both parents combine to genetically unique diploid (2n) (chromosomes) to form an offspring.

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18
Q

Plants Reproduction

A

Many asexual forms happen such as bulbs (onions), runners (strawberries) which produce new shoots / branches that grow out as their offsprings.

Sexual prodigy in flowers - Male sex cells (pollen) and female (ovum) meet and pollinate.

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19
Q

Animals Reproduction

A

Many forms asexual eg. Budding (coral) or regeneration and fragmentation (flatworms) or parthenogenesis - virgin birth (honey bees). Always a single parent and identical offspring. + energy efficient, needs 1 parent, no courtship. - lower genetic diversity, prone to environmental change, no adaptation.

Sexual - Male and female haploid unite (fertilisation) to produce unique diploid offspring. + High genetic diversity, - prone to environment change, adaption. - Energy costly, needs two parents, courtship is time and resource consuming.

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20
Q

Internal versus external

A

Internal = Sperm and egg unite in female body. + fertilisation more likely to occur, protected from predators, offspring has a higher chance of surviving. - High energy to make and raise, less offsprings.

External = sperm will fertilise the egg outside of the organism like with fish. + little energy, large numbers of offsprings, less competition. - Many gametes go unfertilised, offsprings not protected = death.

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21
Q

Reproduction in Fungi & Protosis

A

Fungi = Eukarayote, uni / multicellular. Reproduces both ways but primarily asexual (fragmentation, budding spores) Produces aw haploid cells with mitosis.

Protosis = Eukaryote and produces with both but asexual is the main. Sexually reproduces due to adverse environment such as stress. (meiosis)

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22
Q

Reproduction in bacteria

A

Unicellier, prokaryote, able to produce rapidly.

Binary fission = Seperate body into two new ones.

Conjunction = DNA transfers (direct) one cell to another.

Transformation = Naked DNA taken from environment from bacteria.

Transduction = Bactrial virus transfer DNA between cells.

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23
Q

Artificial Pollination

A

Pollen from desirable traits plant is artificially transferred to the female stigma of another plant.

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24
Q

Artificial insermation

A

Male sperm (desired traits) inserted into female (cows and sheep) + pregnancy as natural. Semen has long storage but a reduced genetic change.

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25
Q

Genetically Clonning

A

Genetically identical copies of organisms without sexual reproduction. Widespread in plant culture. + identical requirements, guarantees desired traits. - disease susceptibility, long term health? (Bt corn / cotton & Gm Atlantic salmon)

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26
Q

Gene flow

A

Allows genes to enter into population, giving the population more genetic diversity.

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27
Q

Genetic drift

A

Process for reducing the gene poo; diversity, limiting the number of alleles in surviving population (random)

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28
Q

Gene pool

A

Total amount of genetic info in the form of alleles.

29
Q

Exon

A

Coding section of DNA that determines amino acid sequences eg. Mutations will change sequence and cause broken proteins / stop code.

30
Q

Intron

A

Non-coding section of DNA. sequences that have no function at the moment. Also contains promoter sequences that helps enzymes find to DNA. (Prevents polypeptide synthesis)

31
Q

Active Immunity

A

Material from disease is placed in immune system causing cells to get rid of the disease material to be protected for life. - Long term effect.

32
Q

Passive Immunity

A

Antibodies that have already come into contact with the disease and prepared to attack it. Works to remove disease material but only happens when they are in the body. - Short term effect.

33
Q

Homeostasis

A

Process where organisms are able to maintain a stable environment. Two stages: Detection of change and counter actions of changes to regulate the internal environment.

Positive loop = increases the change, output rapidly eg. contractions.

Negative loop = Decreases the change / output to bring system back to stability. Occurs as response to stimulus eg. high insulin.

34
Q

Endotherms

A

Animals / plants ability to control their body temp and the Adaptions of environment. Use own body heat through metabolism to maintain internal temp despite ambient challenges eg. mammals and birds.

35
Q

Ectotherms

A

Rely on external heat energy / environment to change their body temp. eg fish, reptiles and amphibians.

36
Q

Non - infectious Pathogens

A

caused by factors other than a pathogen and cannot be transferred between individuals eg. genetic diseases like Down syndrome or skin cancer.

37
Q

Infectious Pathogens

A

caused by a pathogen and can be transferred by direct or indirect contact. E.g Viruses like hepatitis and Malaria.

38
Q

Epidemics

A

an outbreak of infectious diseases that spread rapidly among individuals in a certain area / population at the same time.

39
Q

Pandemics

A

spread of new diseases across continent / worldwide - transport causes easier spread. E.g. Ebola virus - spreads through human contact through mucous or open sin and an overactive immune system can cause death.

40
Q

Koch

A

Proved accepted germ theory and disregarded spontaneous generation. Koch discovered that different pathogens cause specific diseases. Now pathogens can be isolated to target species and find treatments.

41
Q

Pasteur

A

Proved accepted germ theory and disregarded spontaneous generation. Pasteur discovered through the swan neck experiment that microbes are airborne and food spoilage is from active microbes.

42
Q

DNA sequencing

A

shows an ordered list of bases in DNA. used to find specific disease causing genes. Helps to understand how a disease works and to target treatments more effectively.

43
Q

DNA profiling

A

uses DNA strands and electro gel to create / show images within the DNA codes lines. E.g Confirm relatedness (paternity testing) by analysing differences in DNA and Forensics

44
Q

Biotechnology

A

technology that uses living organisms to create a range of products that benefit humans.

45
Q

Transgenic organisms / Genetically modified

A

uses technology to modify genomes or change genes of species by joining two different species DNA sequences to produce new genetic combos. (recombinant)

46
Q

Biodiversity

A

the variety of life (plants, animals, microorganisms and fungi) that can be found on earth. Along with the community they form and habitats they lives on aka ecosystems.

47
Q

Positive agriculture transgenic organism examples (2x plants)

A

Golden rice: able to short term increase genetic diversity in ecosystems which increases the earths biodiversity. Produced by taking genes from a dafodil and soil bacteria insetered into the greens for a substance to be produces that makes vitamin A. New alleles = increased diversity.

Bt cotton or corn: created using a gene from a bt species which naturally repeals pests due to their naturally produced toxins. Naturally produced pesticide = no spraying and close ecosystems won’t be effected.

48
Q

Negative agriculture transgenic organism examples (2x animals)

A

Dolly the sheep: she has been whole organism cloned which allows for genetically identical organisms with perfect characteristic for production agriculture and good quality for consumers. Created by combing a mammal gland and egg cell of two sheeps. Species all the same = lack of variation and less likely to survive environment changes and pathogens. Little success rate.

AquaAdvantage salmon: produced to be sold and genetically modified to grow faster and reach desired market weight.
Created by taking growth hormone gene from another salmon and gene from an eel. Negative outcome on variation and ecosystems if they escape as they are larger and produce faster. Don’t pursue without more knowledge.

49
Q

Medical transgenic organism examples (positive and negative)

A

Human insulin: artificially developed treatment for people who have diabetes. Produced by inserting the human insulin producing gene into bacteria which then goes int a fermentation tank were the bacteria uses the gene to produce insulin. Advantageous = better tolerated by patients and produced effectively.

MABS: antibiotics used in medicine and cancer research. Treatment that helps immune systems produce antibodies ti Taggert affected cells. Grown in. the lining of miles stomachs.They are antigen specific and patients can receive this without another treatment. Disadvantage = extremely costly to make and receive however still a beneficial treatment to help cure cancer.

50
Q

Budding

A

form of asexual reproduction where a new organism is developed from a small part of the parent’s body. A bud which is formed detaches to develop into a new organism. (Fungi)

51
Q

Spores

A

form of asexual reproduction and is produces trough the formation of a spore which encourages the organism releases them into the environment to grow and thrive as a new offspring. (Fungi)

52
Q

Fragmentation

A

form of asexual reproduction and is the process in which the body of the organism gets cut into smaller fragments. Each fragment grows into a new individual. (Fungi)

53
Q

Transformation - AR

A

form of asexual reproduction in bacteria where a prokaryote can take up DNA found within the environment that has originated from other prokaryotes. (Bacteria)

54
Q

Transduction - AR

A

form of asexual reproduction in bacteria where a virus transfers genetic material from one bacterium to another. (Bacteria)

55
Q

Mutation

A

A mutation is a change to the sequence of nucleotides of the DNA in a cell. Ultimately this changes the information coded in the gene and may alter the protein or RNA end product.

This can lead to a positive effect on the organism, no effect or be fatal to cells and organism

56
Q

Mutagen

A

Mutagens are any environmental factor that causes a mutation to occur.
They can be:

Physical - (eg UV light and particle radiation)

Chemical - (Nitric acid or tar in tobacco smoke)

Naturally occurring/man made technologies

57
Q

Biosecurity

A

screening for disease before it enters the country.

58
Q

Plant and Animal Disease in Agriculture (Plant and Animal)

A

Rust disease (fungus) invades stem, takes plant nutrients, releases spores which travels by wind distribution and can affect whole crops (e.g. wheat)

Bird Influenza → causes organism death and affects poultry industry.

59
Q

Detection in Homostasis

A

done by receptors which are part of the central nervous system.
Receptors are sensors that detect stimuli. Stimuli for example could be a change in temp or change in glucose concentration in the blood. Once this is detected the receptors send a message to the hypothalamus.

60
Q

The Red Kangaroo Ectotherms responses (BPS)

A

Behavioural: lay down in the shade to cool down. Licking paws to create a moisture layer to enhance evaporation and heat loss.

Physiological: location of many capillaries under the skin of paws

Structural: Fur to trap warmth, pouch to keep young warm. Large ears to assist heat loss.

61
Q

Neural Pathways (the Nervous and Endocrine Systems)

A

The nervous and endocrine systems coordinate and provide communication pathways to maintain homeostasis

In the nervous system, nerve impulses are transported very quickly along nerves to specific locations in the body.

In the endocrine system, glands produce hormones in the form of chemical substances that are transferred to regions of the body in the blood stream at a much slower rate than the transmission of nerve impulses.

62
Q

Deletion Mutation

A

A deletion, as related to genomics, is a type of mutation that involves the loss of one or more nucleotides from a segment of DNA. A deletion can involve the loss of any number of nucleotides, from a single nucleotide to an entire piece of a chromosome.

63
Q

Frameshift Mutation

A

frameshift mutation is a genetic mutation caused by indels of a number of nucleotides in a DNA sequence that is not divisible by three. Due to the triplet nature of gene expression by codons, the insertion or deletion can change the reading frame, resulting in a completely different translation from the original.

64
Q

Inversion Mutation

A

An inversion occurs when a chromosome breaks in two places; the resulting piece of DNA is reversed and re-inserted into the chromosome. Genetic material may or may not be lost as a result of the chromosome breaks.

65
Q

Substitution Mutation

A

type of mutation in which one nucleotide is replaced by a different nucleotide. The term can also refer to the replacement of one amino acid in a protein with a different amino acid.

66
Q

Last eye surgery

A

Robotically sculpts the lens to remove it back and allow room for the cornea to be reshaped to become clear. The process is very quick and recovery time is only an hour. A cool laser is used so the eye will not be burned and once the process is done you will have good vision and wont need glasses. However, there are risks of permanent blurred vision and it can be a bit expensive.

67
Q

Bionic Eye

A

Visual processing camera at the back of the eye which sends to the optic nerve in the back of the brain. This would be a very effective process for the blind as it allows them to have restored levels of sight.

68
Q

Nucelotides

A

There are four nucleotides, or bases, in DNA: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). These bases form specific pairs (A with T, and G with C).

69
Q

Accomodation

A

shape of the eye lens changes through the ligament being taught or relaxed.

Fat & Round ( ) = Tough and short sight (max accommodation)

Flat & relaxed I I = relaxed and distant vision.

)( Concave = No focal point

Biology HSC (1 decks)

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