General Objectives Flashcards
Spontaneous disintegration of unstable atomic nucleus with accompanying emission of radiation
Radioactivity
This principle states that it is impossible to determine simultaneously the exact position and the exact momentum of a body as small as the electron
Uncertainty Principle
States that the properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers
Periodic Law
Shows that elements are arranged according to increasing atomic weights, similarities in physical and chemical properties reappear after each interval of 8 elements
Law of Octaves
Smallest increment of radiant energy that may be absorbed or emitted
Quanta
Wave function of an electron
Orbital
Theory that organic substances can only be produced from other organic substances
Vital Force Theory
Scientific discipline that treats the composition, properties and transformations of matter; study of structure and changes matter undergoes in natural processes and planned experiments
Chemistry
Physical material of the universe; anything that occupies space and has mass
Matter
Properties w/c can be measured and observed w/o changing the basic identity of the substance
Physical
Properties that describe the way a substance may change or react to form other substances
Chemical
Characteristics of any sample of a substance regardless of the size or shape of the sample
Intrinsic or Intensive
Accidental properties; depend on the amount of material
Extrinsic or extensive
Homogenous material consisting of one particular kind of matter; matter that has a definite composition and distinct properties
Pure substance
Constituents can be separated by suitable physical means into pure components without changing the identities of the components; combination of two or more substances in w/c each substance retains its own identity and hence its own properties
Mixture
Substances that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means
Elements
Substances composed of two or more elements united chemically in fixed proportions
Compounds
Substance able to donate a H+ ion; proton donor
Acid
Produces an excess OH- (aq) ions when dissolved in water; proton acceptor
Base
Ionic compound formed by replacing one or more H+ of an acid by other cations
Salt
Material in which no differing parts can be distinguished
Homogenous
Materials with differing parts may be separated physically
Heterogeneous
Mixtures containing particles larger than normal solutes, invisible to the eye and microscope but visible in ultramicroscope
Colloidal suspension
Consists of particles appearing as huge molecules in a dispersing medium; particles may be visible to the eye and settle rapidly to the bottom if container
Coarse suspension
Law which states that when an ordinary chemical reaction occurs, there is no detectable change in the masses of the substances involved before and after the reaction
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MATTER
Law stating that energy is neither created nor destroyed in any transformation but is transformed from one form to another
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
states that every sample of a given substance always contains the same proportion by weight of all its constituent elements
LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS OR DEFINITE
COMPOSITION
states that when two elements are combined
to form two or more different compounds, and if the
amount of one element is constant, the mass of the
other element in the different compounds are in a
ratio of whole numbers.
LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS
among its primary goals is the investigation of
the structure and transformation of matter and the
interrelationships of energy and matter; application of the methods and theories of physics to the study of chemical changes and
properties of matter
Physical Chemistry
is concerned with the
separation, identification and composition of all
kinds of matter
analytical chemistry
involves the separation and identification of the individual components of materials. It answers the question, “What is
present?”
qualitative analysis
is concerned with how much of each component is present
quantitative analysis
study of carbon-containing compounds; This branch of chemistry now deals with commonly used synthetic substances such as plastics, drugs, dyes, explosives and detergents.
Organic chemistry
covers the chemistry of all elements and their compounds with the exception of carbon and its compounds
Inorganic chemistry
branch of chemistry which
includes the study of the materials and processes
that occur in living organisms. These materials are
largely organic (carbon) compounds
Biochemistry
deals with the changes in the nuclei of atoms and the used of these changes, especially in the study of how substances react.
Nuclear chemistry
form of energy which flows spontaneously from a substance of higher temperature to one of lower temperature.
heat
measure of the intensity of heat; intensive quantity that defines the direction and rate of heat flow; hotness or coldness of a body
temperature
temp scale is based on the freezing and boiling point of water
relative
temp scale based on the quantity of kinetic energy that molecules have
absolute
amount of matter found in a substance; measure of a substance’s resistance to the change in velocity
mass
refers to the force with which an object is attracted to the earth
weight
ratio of the mass of the substance to the mass of water that occupies the same volume
relative density
quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by 1 degC
specific heat
quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degC
calorie
device used to measure the quantity of heat exchanged between
the thermodynamic system and its surroundings
calorimeter
States that the amount of heat that a body gains or losses depends on the mass and nature of the body and change in temperature of that body
law of heat
Amount of heat lost by one body is equal to the amount of heat gained by another body
law of heat exchange
smallest unit of element that cannot be further subdivided and is capable of taking part in a chemical reaction; basic building blocks of matter
atom
smallest unit of element or chemical compound capable of free existence (combination of two or more atoms)
molecule
Dalton’s Atomic Theory of matter
- Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
- All atoms of a given element are identical; the atoms of different elements are different and have different properties (including different masses).
- Atoms of an element are not changed into different types of atoms by chemical reactions: Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.
- Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine; a given compound always has the same relative number and kind of atoms.
high energy radiation similar to X-rays and does not consist of particles
gamma radiation
high speed electrons which could be considered as the radioactive
equivalent of cathode rays (-1 charge)
beta radiaton
much more massive than β particles and have a positive rather than a negative charge; has a charge of 2+; combines with electrons to form atoms of helium
alpha radiation
number of protons in the nucleus
atomic number
total number of protons and neutrons (nucleons)
mass number
atoms of the same element containing different number of neutrons and therefore having different masses
isotopes
the arrangement of elements in order of increasing atomic number, with elements having similar properties placed in vertical columns
periodic table
vertical columns bringing together elements with similar properties
family or group
horizontal rows of the table arranged in order of increasing atomic number
period
elements (with the exemption of hydrogen) found on the left side of the heavy ladder-like line in the periodic table
metals
elements found on the right side of the heavy ladder-like in the periodic table
non-metals
elements that lie along the heavy ladder-like line separating the metals from the nonmetals in the periodic table
metalloids or amphoteric elements
Elements of this type are characterized by atoms in which all subsidiary quantum levels that are present are filled up to capacity. These are members of Group VIII A in the periodic table.
inert gas
These elements partially occupy the s and the d block. These are
known as the s and p block elements; A family
representative elements
These elements are characterized by atoms in which an inner d-level is present but is not filled up to capacity.
transition elements
These elements are characterized by atoms which contain incompletely filled levels as well as incompletely filled f-levels.
inner transition elements
energy required to remove the most loosely held electron from a gaseous atom when it is in its ground state,
ionization energy
System of naming substances or compounds.
chemical nomenclature
symbolic representation of elements; consists of either one or two letters
chemical symbol
a substance formed from two or more elements; a substance that can be decomposed into two or more simpler substances by ordinary chemical means
chemical compound
Any molecule that is made up of two atoms: H2 , O2 , N2 , F2 ,
Cl2 , Br 2 , I2
Diatomic molecules
a shorthand notation using chemical symbols and numerical subscripts to represent the composition of a substance
chemical formula
special valence number assigned to each element to indicate the number of electrons oxidation state/valence gained, lost or shared
unequally
oxidation number/charge
represent the number of electrons in the outermost energy level which are largely responsible for the chemical behavior of an element
valence electron
an ion consisting of two or more atoms chemically bonded together and carrying a net electric charge
polyatomic ion
an electrically charged particle obtained from an atom or a chemically bonded group of atoms by adding or removing electrons
ion
a change in which one or more kinds of matter are transformed into a new kind of matter or several new kinds of matter; change in which a new substance with new properties is formed.
chemical reaction
a shorthand way of representing a chemical reaction using chemical formulas to indicate the reactants and products
chemical equation
a type of reaction wherein a single more complex product is formed by the combination of two or more simpler substances.
direct combination or synthesis
a reaction wherein a compound is broken down into two or
more simpler substances.
decomposition or analysis
A reaction wherein an element or an ion displaces another element or ion in a compound.
single displacement
a reaction wherein compounds interchange ions or radicals. Compounds exchange positive and negative parts and results in the formation of different compounds.
metathesis or double displacement
the calculation of the quantities of materials consumed and produced in chemical reactions
chemical stoichiometry
defined as the number of carbon atoms in exactly 12 grams of pure C-12 atom; counting unit of a chemist
mole
the mass in grams of one mole of molecules or formula unit of a substance; also called molecular weight
molar mass
formula which shows the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound
empirical formula
the exact formula of a molecule giving the types of atoms and the number of each type
molecular formula
a compound in which a fixed number of water molecules are associated with each formula unit; composed of an anhydrous salt and water of hydration
hydrate
the ratio of moles of one substance to moles of another substance in a balanced chemical equation
mole ratio
the reactant that is completely consumed when a reaction is run to completion
limiting reactant
the measured quantity of product obtained in a chemical reaction less than theoretical
actual yield
the quantity of product calculated to result from a chemical reaction
theoretical yield
defined as the force exerted per unit area
pressure
At constant temperature, the volume of a sample of a gas varies inversely with the pressure
Boyle’s Law
The volume of any sample of a gas varies directly with the absolute temperature, if the pressure is held constant.
Charles’ Law
The pressure of a gas varies directly with the absolute temperature when the volume is held constant.
Amonton’s Law
Equal number of molecules are contained in equal volumes of different gases if the temperature is the same.
Avogadro’s Law
The volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles present, n, and to the absolute temperature, T, and is inversely
proportional to the pressure, P.
Ideal Gas Law
term used to describe the mixing of gases
diffusion
term used to describe the passage of gas through a tiny orifice into an evacuated chamber
effusion
states that the effusion rate of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of its particles
Graham’s Law
When measured at constant temperature and pressure, the volume of gases that are produced or used in a chemical reaction can be expressed in ratios of small whole numbers.
Gay Lussac’s Law of Combining Volumes
dissolving medium of a solution; component of a solution that is greater in quantity
solvent
universal solvent
water
substance dissolved in a solvent to make a solution component of a solution that is present in relatively smaller quantity
solute
refers to the amount of substance that dissolves in a given quantity of solvent at a given temperature to form a saturated solution; this characteristic of a substance is the concentration of its saturated solution
solubility
an increase in temperature ________ the solubility of most solid solutes dissolved in liquid solvent
increases
an increase in temperature decreases the solubility of gaseous
solutes dissolved in _______ solvent
liquid
for _________, the greater the pressure, the higher the solubility
gases
contains the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved under the conditions at which the solution exists
saturated solution
a solution that is not in equilibrium with respect to a given dissolved substance and in which more of the substance can dissolve
unsaturated solution
solution which contains an amount of solute in excess of that normally possible under existing conditions; unstable solution in which the concentration of the solute is greater than its saturated solution
supersaturated solution
solution where a small amount of solute is present in solution relative to the amount that could dissolve
dilute solution
solution that contains a relatively large amount of solute relative to the amount that could dissolve
concentrated solution
substances which dissolves in any amount in each other
miscible substances
substances which have limited solubility in each other
partially miscible
substances which do not dissolve in each other and forms two separate layers upon mixing
immiscible
solutions in which water is the solvent
aqueous solution
concentration unit most often used in a chemical laboratory; ratio giving the number of moles (n) of solute per liter of solution
molarity
finds use in experimental situations where changes in temperature are of concern; ratio giving the number of moles of solute per kg of solvent
molality
most encountered in situations that involve the reactions of acids with bases; ratio giving the number of gram-equivalents of solute present in a liter volume of solution
normality
is the process in which more solvent is added to a solution in order to lower the concentration of the solution.
dilution
The vapor pressure, freezing point and boiling point of a solution differs from those of the pure solvent by amounts that are directly proportional to the molal concentration of the solute.
Colligative Property Law
The freezing point of a solution is always _________ than the freezing point of the pure solvent.
lower
The temperature at which a solution boils is ________ than that of the pure solvent if the solute is nonvolatile.
higher
States that the vapor pressure of a solvent above a solution is equal to the vapor pressure of the pure solvent at the same temperature scaled by the mole fraction of the solvent present
Raoult’s law
spontaneous net movement or diffusion of solvent molecules through a selectively-permeable membrane from a region of high water potential to a region of low water potential, in the direction that tends to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides.
osmosis
pressure needed to prevent the flow of solvent into the solution through a semi-permeable membrane
osmotic pressure
the change in concentration of a reactant or product per unit time
reaction rate
set of postulates used to explain how chemical reactions occur.
collision theory
Collision Theory fundamental postulates
- Reactant particles must collide with each other in order for a reaction to occur.
- Colliding particles must collide with a certain minimum total amount of energy (activation energy), if the collision is to result in a reaction.
- In some cases, reactants must be oriented in a specific way upon collision if a reaction is to occur.
The minimum energy of collision required for two molecules to react
Activation energy
state reached by a reaction mixture when the rate of the forward reaction and that of the reverse reaction have become equal.
chemical equilibrium
TRUE OR FALSE: Only concentrations of gases and substances in solution are written in an equilibrium constant expression
True
relation that states that the values of the equilibrium constant expression, Kc are constant for a particular reaction at a given temperature, whatever equilibrium concentrations are substituted
Law of Mass Action
If a system in chemical equilibrium is altered by a change of some condition, chemical reaction occurs to shift the equilibrium composition in a way that acts to reduce the effect of that change of condition.
Le Chatelier’s Principle
TRUE OR FALSE: A catalyst affects the equilibrium composition of a reaction mixture.
False. A catalyst merely speeds up the attainment of equilibrium.
a substance that changes the speed of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing a permanent chemical change in the process.
catalyst
the process of producing ions out of a solution
ionization
Theory stating that a substance can function as an acid only in the presence of a base; similarly, a substance can function as a base only in the presence of an acid.
Bronsted-Lowry Theory
is the branch of physical chemistry which deals with the thermal changes accompanying chemical and physical transformations.
thermochemistry
the substance of mixture of substances under study in which a change occurs
system
are everything in the vicinity of the thermodynamic system.
surroundings
is a chemical reaction or physical change in which heat is evolved
exothermic
is a chemical reaction or physical change in which heat is absorbed
endothermic
the experimental measurement of heat produced in chemical and physical processes.
calorimetry
a device used for measuring the heat evolved in the combustion of a
substance under constant volume conditions.
bomb calorimeter
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the sample of
substance by 1.0 degC
heat capacity
is a property of a substance that can be used to obtain the heat absorbed or evolved in a chemical reaction (or physical change) at constant pressure
enthalpy
law states that the change in enthalpy for any chemical reaction is constant, whether the reaction occurs on one step or several steps.
Hess’ Law: Law of Constant Heat Summation
enthalpy change when a reaction occurs with all reactants and products in their standard states
standard enthalpy of rxn
the change in enthalpy that accompanies the formation of one mole of a substance from its elements, with all substances in their standard states.
standard enthalpy of formation
amount of heat required to change a given mass of a substance from the solid state to the liquid state without change in temperature.
heat of fusion
amount of heat required to change a given mass of a substance from the liquid state to the vapor state without change in temperature
heat of vaporization
is the flow of electric charges or transfer of electrons.
electric current
Conduction in which the charge is carried by ions. This will not occur unless the ions of the Electrolytes are free to move. It is exhibited principally by molten salts and by aqueous solutions of electrolytes.
electrolytic conduction
power developed by one ampere in flowing through a potential of one volt in one second
joule
the power developed by one ampere flowing through a potential difference of one volt.
watt
the energy required to move an electric charge from one point to another
electrical work
rate at which electrical work is done
electrical power
a device (used to measure emf) that has an adjustable voltage, which is varied until it just balances the cell voltage
potentiometer
a term used to designate an atom with a specific atomic number and mass number.
nuclide
an isotope that is radioactive, that is, it is undergoing nuclear changes with emission of radiation
radioisotope
energetic electrons emitted as a result of the conversion of a neutron to a proton in a radioactive nucleus
beta particles
particle with the same mass as an electron but with a positive charge; positive electron emitted as a result of the conversion of a proton to a neutron in a radioactive nucleus
positron
energy released when nucleons (protons and neutrons) are fused into an atomic nucleus. This energy replaces an equivalent quantity of matter.
nuclear binding energy
time required for one half of any given quantity of a radioactive substance to undergo decay
half-life
is a method of determining the age of a carbon-containing material based on the rate of decay of radioactive carbon-14
radiocarbon dating
Above Z = ____ the elements have no stable isotopes
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