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National Boards > General Histology > Flashcards

General Histology Flashcards

1
Q

Cytoplasm

A

Site of cell synthesizing activity
Contains organelles, cytoplasmic inclusions (glycogen, pigments, lipids, etc.
Cytoplasmic matrix made of ground substance

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2
Q

Membrane bound organelles

A 
Rough endoplasmic reticulum 
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus 
Mitochondria 
Lysosomes 
Peroxisomes 
Endosomes
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3
Q

Non membrane bound organelles

A 
Microtubules 
Centrioles 
Filaments 
Basal bodies 
Ribosomes
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4
Q

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

Protein synthesis for export outside of cell

Studded with ribosomes

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5
Q

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A 
Steroid synthesis (adrenal cortex, testes)
Sequesters calcium (muscles)
Lipid and glycogen metabolism (liver)
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6
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Posttranslational protein modification and packaging
Lysosomes production

Adds oligosaccharides for glycoproteins
Adds sulfate groups for proteoglycans

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7
Q

Mitochondria

A

ATP production via Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation

Contains inner and outer membrane

Have own cyclic DNA

Not present in RBCs

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8
Q

Lysosomes

A

Digestion of microorganisms or other cellular components by hydrolytic enzymes

Produced by Golgi

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9
Q

Peroxisomes

A

Elimination of H2O2 by oxidative enzymes (catalase and peroxidase)

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10
Q

Endosomes

A

Vesicles formed as a result of phagocytosis

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11
Q

Microtubules

A

Provide skeletal support, intracellular transport and cellular movement

Axoneme: specialized micro tubules in cilia and flagella arranged in 9+2 pattern

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12
Q

Centrioles

A

Provide microtubule organization

Form end of mototic spindles

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13
Q

Filaments

A

Microfilaments (actin, myosin): important for muscle contraction and cellular movement/anchorage

Intermediate filaments (vimentin, cytokerrin): cytoskeletal support

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14
Q

Basal bodies

A

Required for development of cilia

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15
Q

Ribosomes

A

Protein synthesis for use within the cell

Composed of rRNA and protein

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16
Q

Nucleus

A

Nuclear membrane: inner and outer plasma membrane
Nucleoplasm: ground substance of nucleus
Chromatin: complex of DNA and proteins
Euchromatin: loose, indicates activity
Heterochromatin: condensed
Nucleolus: site of rRNA synthesis
Barr body: repressed X chromosome found only in cells of females appearing as sense chromatin mass next to nuclear membrane

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17
Q

At what week can the sex of an embryo be determined?

A

8th week by examining presence (female) or absence (make) of a Barr body

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18
Q

Cell surface appendages

A

Microvilli: fingerlike structures on apical surface of most epithelial cells providing increased surface area
Stereocilia: long microvilli only in epididymis and sensory cells of inner ear
Cilia: short structures used for locomotion or movement of substances (require basal bodies for development)
Flagella: long whiplike structures used for locomotion

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19
Q

Cell cycle

A 
G0
G1
S
G2
M
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20
Q

Mitosis

A

Produces 2 daughter cells with same chromosome number as parent cell (diploid, 2n)

All somatic cells

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21
Q

Interphase

A

G1: first cell growth period
G0: period outside of cell cycle for terminal differentiation
S: DNA synthesis (7 hours)
G2: second variable period of cellular growth

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22
Q

Prophase

A

Chromatin coils and condenses in nucleus

Mitotic spindle forms

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23
Q

Metaphase

A

Nuclear membrane and nucleoli disappear

Chromosomes line up at equitorial plate of mitotic spindles

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24
Q

Anaphase

A

Chromosomes split to opposite poles

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25
Q

Telophase

A

Nuclear membrane forms around chromosomes at poles
Chromosomes uncoil and nucleoli reappear
Cytoplasm divides into two daughter cells

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26
Q

Meiosis

A

Produces four daughter cells with half the chromosome number (haploid, n)

Only gametes

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27
Q

Cell to cell contacts

A

Tight junction: beltlike junction sealing off intercellular space

Intermediate junction: beltlike junction leaving 15-20nm wide space

Desmosome: strong but localized adhesion sites composed of attachment plaque to which intermediate filaments are anchored

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28
Q

Junctional complex

A

Tight junction
Intermediate junction
Desmosome

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29
Q

Cell turnover rate (high to low)

A

Oral, epidermal, GI

Smooth muscle, vascular endothelial

Skeletal muscle, cardiac

Neurons

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30
Q

Hemidesmosomes

A

Cell to ECM contact
Integrins are principle proteins

Pemphigus: autoimmunity against des isomers
Pemphigoid: autoimmunity against hemidesmosomes

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31
Q

Gap junction

A

Areas of free communication between cells to allow passage of fluids, ions and small molecules

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32
Q

Functions of epithelium

A 
Barrier 
Diffusion 
Absorption 
Secretory 
Transport 
Sensory
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33
Q

What is the thinnest epithelium in the oral cavity?

A

Sublingual mucosa

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34
Q

True or false: epithelium is characterized by cell morphology and arrangement as well as function.

A

False

It is only characterized by morphology and arrangement, not function

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35
Q

Epithelium classification by cell layers

A

Simple: one layer
Stratified: 2 or more layers
Pseudo stratified: one layer but some don’t reach to outer surface

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36
Q

Epithelium classification by morphology

A

Squamous: wide and short
Cuboidal: cubic
Columnar: tall and skinny
Transitional: ranges from squamous to cuboidal

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37
Q

Epithelium classification by location

A

Endothelium: lines blood vessels
Mesothelium: lines closed body cavities

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38
Q

Functions of basement membrane

A

Attachment
Separation
Filtration
Scaffolding

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39
Q

Components of basement membrane

A

Lamina lucida: electron clear
Lamina densa: type 4 collagen, proteoglycans, laminin, and fibronectin and anchoring fibrils
Reticular lamina: reticular fibers of type 3 collagen

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40
Q

Connective tissue proper

A

Loose CT: ground substance with sparse divers and cells
Dense CT: greater fiber concentration
Irregular: found in dermis, sub mucosa of GI, fibrous capsules
Regular: ordered arrangement found in tendons, ligaments, and aponeuroses

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41
Q

Connective tissue attachments

A

Ligaments: bone to bone
Tendons: muscle to bone
Aponeurosis: sheet like tendon
Sharpey’s fiber: portion of ligament or tendon inserting into bone

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42
Q

Where do most CTs derive from?

A

Mesoderm

CTs of head and neck can derive from neural crest ectoderm

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43
Q

Cells of connective tissue

A

Resident cells: fibroblasts, myofibroblasts, adipocytes, macrophages, mast cells, mesenchymal cells

Transient cells: lymphocytes, neutrophils, monocytes, plasma cells, eosinophils, basophils

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44
Q

3 types of glands

A

Exocrine: secrete through ducts
Endocrine: secrete into blood stream
Paracrine: secrete into extra cellular spaces

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45
Q

Structure of salivary glands

A

Comprised of lobes divided by CT septa
Terminal secretion unit = acini or tubules

Intercalated duct : transports saliva to larger ducts (simple cuboidal)
Striated duct: modifies salivary components
(Low columnar)
Terminal excretory duct: transports saliva to oral cavity (pseudo stratified)

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46
Q

Cartilage

A

Avascular connective tissue
Composed of chondrocytes in lacunae
Chondroblast: initial cartilagenic cells

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47
Q

Cartilage matrix

A

Type 2 collagen
Ground substance
Glycosaminoglycans (hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, keratin sulfate)
Proteoglycans

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48
Q

What type of cartilage is the precursor to bone in endochondrial ossification?

A

Hyaline cartilage

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49
Q

Does cartilage contain calcium salts?

A

No, it does not contain calcium salts

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50
Q

Perichondrium covers cartilage except what three locations?

A

Fibrocartilage
Articular cartilage of joints
Basal/costal cartilage

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51
Q

Perichondrium

A

Inner cellular layer: produces chondroblasts

Outer fibrous layer: provides protection

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52
Q

Growth of cartilage

A

Appositional: new cartilage forms on surface of existing cartilage

Interstitial: new cartilage forms in existing cartilage, chondrocytes divide

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53
Q

Types of cartilage

A

Hyaline: articular surfaces, nose, trachea, bronchi; thin collagen, pliable and resilient

Elastic: external ear, eustschian tube, epiglottis; collagen and elastin, elastic

Fibrocartilage: intervertebral discs, TMJ, pubic symphysis, meniscus; withstands compression and tension

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54
Q

Bone

A

Osteoblasts: produce osteoid (type 1 collagen); mature bone forms when osteoid calcifies
Osteocytes: osteoblasts that become trapped in lacunae during calcification
Canaliculi channels maintain nourishment

Predominant mineral: hydroxyapatite

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55
Q

Functions of bone

A 
Support 
Protection
Movement 
Mineral storage 
Hematopoiesis
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56
Q

Bone matrix

A

Organic: type 1 collagen, osteocalcin, osteonectin, ground substance

Inorganic: hydroxyapatite

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57
Q

Intramembranous ossification

A

Mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts that secrete matrix in loosely arranged collagen
New matrix calcified to form woven bone
Woven bone is replaced over time to calcified bone

Flat bones of skull, maxilla, mandible body, clavicle

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58
Q

Endochondral ossification

A

Subperiosteal bony cuff forms around hyaline cartilage model
Chondrocytes hypertrophy and die and matrix becomes calcified

Long bones, vertebrae, mandibular condyles

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59
Q

Bone growth

A

Appositional growth: both endochondral and intramembranous at any time

Interstitial growth: endochondral only until epiphyseal plates close

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60
Q

Types of bone

A

Cortical: haversian systems (lamellae surrounding Haversian canal with connecting canaliculi between osteocytes) connected by Volkmann’s canals

Cancellous: less dense arrangement with lamellae arranged in thin spicules called trabeculae
Marrow spaces are between trabeculae

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61
Q

Bone surfaces

A

Periosteum: CT capsule around outer surface containing collagen, fibroblasts, and osteoprogenitor cells

Endosteum: one cell thick layer of osteoprogenitor cells inside of bone and contains bone marrow

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62
Q

Bone remodeling

A

Mature bone grows only by appositional growth

Osteoclasts resorb; osteoblasts lay down

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63
Q

Osteoclasts

A

Multinucleated giant cells residing in Howship’s lacunae

Produce hydrolytic enzymes from ruffled borders

Protons lower pH at resorption site and collagenases and proteases digest matrix

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64
Q

Fracture repair steps

A
  1. Blood clot formation
  2. Bridging callus formation
  3. Periosteal callus formation
  4. New endochondral bone formation
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65
Q

Calcium regulation

A

Parathyroid hormone: stimulates osteoclasts to release calcium

Calcitonin: inhibits osteoclasts to decrease blood calcium levels

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66
Q

Classification of joints based on motion

A

Synarthrosis: immovable
Amphiarthrosis: slightly moveable
Diarthrosis: fully movable

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67
Q

Type of joint based on connective tissue

A 
Fibrous: joined by fibrous CT
     Suture
     Syndesmosis (ex: tibia-fibula
     Gomphosis (tooth socket)
Cartilaginous: joined by cartilage 
     Synchondrosis 
      Symphysis
Synovial: freely movable lined by synovial membrane 
     Majority of joints
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68
Q

Synovial joint types

A 
Ball and socket
Gliding hinge 
Pivot 
Ellipsoidal  
Saddle
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69
Q

Components of synovial joint

A 
Articular capsule 
Articular cartilage 
Synovial cavity 
Synovial membrane 
Synovial fluid
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70
Q

Nervous tissue components

A

Perikaryon (cell body)
Axon
Dendrites
Cytoskeleton

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71
Q

Neuron classification

A

By function
Motor (efferent), sensory (afferent), mixed

By processes
Unipolar (sensory)
Bipolar (retina and CN VIII ganglia)
Multipolar (3 or more processes; motor and mixed)

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72
Q

Nervous tissue support cells

A

Astrocytes: regulation of metabolites and BBB

Oligodendrocytes: myelination

Microglia: phagocytosis

Ependymal: epithelium of brain, spinal cord

Choroidal: CSF secretion

Schwann cells (PNS only): myelination

Satellite cels (PNS only): support

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73
Q

Functions of blood

A

Transportation
Buffering
Thermoregulation

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74
Q

Hematocrit

A

Percentage of RBCs in blood

45% men
40% women

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75
Q

Components of blood

A

Plasma (55%): water,proteins, electrolytes

Formed elements (55%): erythrocytes, leukocyte a, and platelets

Serum = blood plasma - fibrinogen and clotting factors

76
Q

Lifespans of formed blood elements

A

Erythrocytes/ 120 days
Platelets: 5-10 days
Leukocytes: variable

77
Q

Granulocytes vs agranulocytes

A 
Granulocytes 
    Neutrophils (60%)
    Eosinophils (5%)
    Basophils (1%) 
Agranulocytes 
     Lymphocytes (30%)
     Monocytes (4%)

Note: monocytes became macrophages once they enter tissues

78
Q

Leukocyte S

A

Neutrophils: phagocytosis, acute inflammation
Eosinophils: phagocytosis, chronic inflammation
Basophils: hypersensitivity
Lymphocyte: immunoregulation
Monocytes: phagocytosis, chronic inflammation

79
Q

Blood vessel layers

A 
Tunica intima (simple squamous ) 
Tunica media (smooth muscle) 
Tunica adventitia (collagen and elastin)
80
Q

Pancreas

A

Exocrine: digestive enzymes via ducts

Endocrine: glucagon, insulin, somatostatin via bloodstream

81
Q

Exocrine pancreas

A

Produces digestive enzyme precursors that are activated by trypsin in small intestine

Pancreatic acini

Centroacinar cells

82
Q

Endocrine pancreas

A

Regulates blood glucose levels

Islets of langerhans

Alpha cells = glucagon
Beta cells = insulin
Delta cells = somatostatin (inhibits alpha and beta cells)

83
Q

What regulates pancreatic enzyme secretion ?

A

Secretin in the duodenum (increase bicarbonate secretion)

CCK (increase proenzyme secretion)

84
Q

Urinary system components

A

Kidneys
Ureters
Urinary bladder
Urethra

85
Q

Kidney functions

A 
Remove metabolic waste
Conserve body fluids 
Synthesize erythropoietin 
Synthesize renin 
Hydroxylatea vitamin D
86
Q

Components of kidney

A 
Capsule
Cortex
     Renal corpuscles 
         Glomerulus 
         Bowman's capsules 
     Proximal tubules 
     Distal tubules 
     Collecting ducts 
Medulla 
     Medullary collecting ducts 
     Loop of Henle
     Vasa recta
87
Q

Pyramids of kidney

A

Conical structures in medulla composed of medullary straight tubules, collecting ducts, and vasa recta

88
Q

Medullary rays of kidney

A

Striations in the cortex radiating from medulla composed of cortical straight tubules and collecting ducts

89
Q

Juxtaglomerular apparatus

A

Macula densa: part of distal convoluted tubule

Juxtaglomerular cells: modified smooth muscle cells that secrete renin

Extraglomerular mesangial cells: phagocytosis cells

90
Q

What does renin do?

A

Regulates blood pressure

Produced in juxtaglomerular cells

91
Q

Nephron functions

A

Filtration
Absorption
Secretion
Excretion

92
Q

Nephron components

A 
Glomerulus 
Bowman' capsule 
Proximal convoluted tubule 
Loop of Henle 
Distal convoluted tubule
93
Q

Types of nephrons

A

Cortical: located in outer cortex with short loops of Henle
Intermediate: middle cortex with medium loops is Henle
Juxtamedullary: base of medullary pyramid with long loops of Henle

94
Q

Urethra

A

Male urethra is 20cm long with 3 segments
Prostatic: widest and dilatable
Membranous: shortest and least dilatable
Penile: longest and narrowest

Female urethra is 3-5cm long

95
Q

Testes

A

Produce sperm and steroids
Tunica albuginea: thick CT
Composed of seminiferous tubules where spermatogenesis occurs

Epididymis: stores sperm
Seminal fluid: seminal vesicles and prostrate secretions

96
Q

Major cellular components of male reproductive system

A

Leydig cell: testosterone production in seminiferous tubules

Sertoli cell: testicular fluid production in seminiferous fluid

Sperm cell: sperm in seminiferous tubules but mature in epididymis

97
Q

Layers of the heart

A

Endocardium (simple squamous)
Myocardium (cardiac muscle)
Pericardium (connective tissue and adipose)

98
Q

Sinusoid

A

fenestrated or disconinuous capillaries in liver, spleenand endocrine glands

larger and irregular compared to capillaries in order to accommodate phagocytic cells

99
Q

Where does the greatest drop in blood pressure in circulation occur?

A

From arteries to arterioles

100
Q

Capillaries

A

Only endothelial layer
one erythrocyte wide
slowest velocity of blood flow
gas and metabolite exchange via diffusion

101
Q

Venules vs Veins

A

Venules have thick tunica adventitia

Veins have thickest tunica adventitia, some valves, some vasa vasora

102
Q

Cardiac Conduction

A 
Sinoatrial node (SA node): the pacemaker of the heart
Autonomic nerves only regulate the RATE of cardiac impulses, cardiac muscle maintains its own rhythm

SA node -> AV node -> Bundle of His -> Purkinje fibers

103
Q

Tachycardia and Bradycardia

A

Tachycardia > 100bpm

Bradycardia

104
Q

Lymph

A

Yellowish, plasma like liquid containing mostly lymphocytes

Lymph is not pumped; it relies on valves, gravity, and skeletl muscle contractions

105
Q

Where is most of the lymph reurned to?

A

The junction of the left internal jugular and subclavian veins

106
Q

Functions of lymphatic system

A

Transport tissue fluid to circulation
Tranport fat metabolites to circulation
Filtration of foreign agents in lymph nodes
Immunological surveillance

107
Q

Lymph Drainage

A

Thoracic duct: majority of the body (left sublcavian vein)

Right lymphatic duct: upper right body (right subclavian vein)

108
Q

Components of Lymphatic System

A 
Bone marrow
Thymus
Spleen
Lymph
Lymphatic vessels
Lymph nodes
Lymphatic nodules (tonsils, appendix, Peyer's patches)
109
Q

Lymph nodes

A

Small fibrous-encapsulated organs that filter lymph
Macrophages and lymphocytes process lymph in nodal cortical and trabecular sinuses
Consist of
External capsule
Outer cortex (B cells)
Paracortex (T cells)
Inner medulla (B cells and macrophages)
Note: lymph nodes are the only lymph structures wth both efferent and afferent vessels

110
Q

Bone Marrow

A

Site of B cell maturation

Contains pluripotent stem cells capable of differentiating into lymphocytes or phagocytes

111
Q

Thymus

A

Site of T cell maturation
Replaced with adipose tissue in adulthood
Consists of
External capsule
Outer cortex (high concentration T cells)
Inner medulla (epitheliorecticular cells)

112
Q

Spleen

A

Largest lymphatic organ
Develops from mesenchyme of primitive stomach
Sie of lymphocyte proliferation, large antigen scavenging, and damage erythrocytes
Consists of
External capsule
White pulp (B ells) surrounded by Periarterial lymphatic sheath (PALS) containing T cells
Red pulp: erythrocytes, macrophages, lymphocytes

113
Q

Pituitary Gland

A

Located in sella turcica of sphenoid bone
“Master endocrine gland”
Attached to hypothalamus via infundibulum
Inferior and superior hypophyseal arteries provide blood supply
Contains own portal system (2 capillary beds)
2 different components
1. Adenohypophysis: anterior
2. Neurohypophysis: posterior

114
Q

What is the most abundant of the pituitary hormones?

A

GH

ADH and oxytocin are synthesized in hypothalamus and stored in posterior pituitary

115
Q

Thyroid gland

A

Bilobed organ anterolateral to upper trachea in anterior triangle of neck
Surrounded by CT capsule
Secretory follicles surround gel-like colloid composed of thyroglobulin

116
Q

What is the normal T4 to T3 ratio?

A

20:1

117
Q

Thyroid gland issues

A

Hypothyroidism: Cretinism (children), Myxedema (adults), Hashimoto’s thyroiditis (autoimmune)

Hyperthyroidism: Grave’s disease (toxic goiter)

118
Q

Cell components of thyroid follicles

A

Follicular cells: T4 and T3 secretion

Parafollicular cells: secrete calcitonin

119
Q

Parathyroid Glands

A

Small ovoid organs in pairs located in thyroid CT
Derive from 3rd and 4th pharyngeal pouches
Regulate blood calcium and phosphate
Innervated by superior cervical ganglion
Blood supply from inferior and superior thyroid arteries

120
Q

Effects of PTH

A 
Increased blood calcium levels 
Stimulation of bone resorption 
Increased renal calcium resorption
Decreased renal phosphate resorption 
Increased intestinal calcium absorption
121
Q

Pineal Gland

A

Small, cone-shaped gland located at back of 3rd ventricle of brain
Regulates sleep-wake cycle Contains numerous neurotransmitters including melatonin

122
Q

Hormones produced in anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)

A 
Growth Hormone 
Prolactin 
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Leutinizing hormone (LH) 
Adenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) 
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Lipotropic hormone (LPH)

Note: embryological origin is Rathke’s pouch

123
Q

Hormones produced in posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

A 
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Oxytocin

Note: embryological origin is Infundibulum

124
Q

Major Parathyroid Cells

A

Chief cells: secrete PTH

Oxyphil cells: unknown function

125
Q

Adrenal Glands

A

Located superior to kidneys

Provides regulatory feedback to pituitary and hypothalamus

126
Q

Outer cortex of adrenal glands

A 
Developed from mesoderm
Produces mineralcorticoids (aldosterone) in zona glomerulosa
Produces glucocorticoids (hydrocortisone, cortisone) in zona fasiculata
Produces gonadocorticoids in zona reticularis
127
Q

Inner medulla of adrenal glands

A 
Developed from neural crest ectoderm
Produces catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine)
128
Q

Respiratory System Functions

A

Air filtration
Air conduction
Gas exchange

129
Q

Divisions of respiratory System

A

Conduction: warms air, moistens, removes particles
Nasal cavities, nasopharynx, oropharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi

Respiration: gas exchange
Bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and alveoli

130
Q

Alveoli

A

site of gas exchange

aleolar septum separates adjacent alveolar air spaces

131
Q

Types of alveolar epithelial cells

A

Type 1: 95%; gas exchange, joined by tight junctions

Type 2: 5%: secretion of surfactant

132
Q

What are dust cells?

A

Alveolar macrophages

133
Q

Functions of the upper digestive system

A

Barrier
Absorption
Secretion

134
Q

Layers of upper digestion system

A

Mucosa: epithelium, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosa (smooth muscle)
Submucosa: dense irregular CT, glands, submucosal plexus of unmyelinated nerves
Muscularis externa (smooth muscle)
Serosa: mesothelium, CT
Adventitia

135
Q

Peristalsis

A

the waves of smooth muscle contraction of the muscularis externa that propels GI contents along

136
Q

Esophagus

A

Transports food from oropharynx to the stomach
nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
Glands: mucous

137
Q

Stomach

A

Mixes and partially digests food, producing chyme
Simple columnar epithelium renewing 3-5 days
Lining: Rugae (longitudinal folds for expansion) and Gastric pits (microscopic depressions for gastric glands)
Parts: cardiac, fundic, and pyloric
Glands: mucous, chief cells make pepsinogen, parietal cells make HCl, enteroendocrine cells make gastrin
Innervation: CN X

138
Q

Small Intestine

A

Digestion of chyme and absorption

Simple columnar epithelium renewing 5-6 days

139
Q

Small Intestine Linings

A

Plicae circulares (valves of Kerckring): transverse semilunar folds along lumen to provide surface area

Villi: fingerlice projections on plicae

Microvilli: micro fingerlike projections on enterocytes

140
Q

Small Intestine Organization

A

Duodenum: shortest segment with submucosal (Brunner’s glands)

Jejunum: middle segment with more plicae and villi

Ileum: longest segment with lymphoid tissue (Peyer’s patches)

141
Q

Muscularis externa

A

Myenteric (Auerbach’s) plexus is located between two layers of smooth muscle

142
Q

Small Intestine Glands

A 
Intestinal glands (Crypts of Lieberkuhn): small intestine at base of villi 
Submucosal glands of Brunner: only in duodenum
143
Q

Cells of Small Intestine

A

Enterocytes: epithelium for absorption and digestion
Goblet cells: mucous secreting cells
M cells: absorption of antigens to lymphatics
Paneth cells: digestion of bacterial cell walls (secrete lysozyme)
Enteroendocrine cells: CCK increases pancreatic and bile secretion, secretin increases pancreatic bicarbonate secretion, GIP decreases gastric acid secretion
Mucosal cells: produce bicarbonate

144
Q

Large Intestine

A

Reabsorbs water and electrolytes and eliminates waste
Simple columnar epithelium renewing 5-6 days
Smooth surface lining
Muscularis externa: teniae coli (longitudinal bands for peristalsis), haustra (independent contration)
Glands: intestinal glands
Innervation: CN X, pelvic splanchnic nerve

145
Q

Large intestine organization

A 
Cecum: appendix
Ascending colon
Transverse colon
Descending colon
Sigmoid colon
Rectum (no teniae coli)
Anal canal
146
Q

Gut-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (GALT)

A 
Lamina propria (GI tract)
Peyer's patches (ileum)
Lymphoid aggregates (large intestine and appendix)
147
Q

Liver

A

Exocrine: bile
Endocrine: albumin, lipoproteins, alpha/beta globulins, prothrombin, fibronectin

148
Q

Portal Triad

A

Hepatic artery
Portal vein
Bile duct

149
Q

Liver lobules

A

Hexagonal stacks of hepatocyte cords separated by anastamosing sinusoid
Surround a central vein (where sinusoids drain)
Portal triads located at each corner

150
Q

Hepatocytes

A

Nuclei are often binucleate
Acidophilic cytoplasm (peroxisomes contain catalase and alcohol dehydrogenase)
Lysosomes store iron
Glycogen deposits
Lipid droplets
5 month lifespan, capable of regeneration

151
Q

Hepatic sinusoids

A

Lined by thin, discontinuous epithelium with no basement membrane
Kupffer cells: mononuclear macrophages
Ito cells: adipocytes in space of Disse storing vitamin A
Perisinusoidal space: site of exchange between blood and hepatocytes

152
Q

Biliary flow

A 
Hepatocytes ->
Canaliculi ->
Canals of Hering ->
Inerlobular bile ducts ->
Lobar ducts ->
Common hepatic duct ->
Common bile duct ->
Duodenum
153
Q

What increases biliary flow?

A

Primarily CCK (produced by enteroendocrine cells)

secretin and gastrin also increase biliary flow

154
Q

Biliary Tree

A

Ductal system transporting bile from hepatocytes to gall bladder and duodenum
Canaliculi: small canals formed by grooves in adjacent hepatocytes
Ampulla of vater: opening of common bile duct into duodenum
Sphycter of Boyden at common bile duct; Sphyncter of Oddi at ampula of vater

155
Q

True or false: biliary flow is opposite to that of blood flow?

A

True

Central vein -> portal canal

156
Q

What condition does elevated serum bilirubin result in?

A

Jaundice

157
Q

Bile composition

A

Water
Electrolytes
Cholesterol
Lecithin
Bile salts (glycocholic acid, taurocholic acid)
Bile pigments (bilirubin, biliverdin, glucoronide)

158
Q

Gall Bladder

A

Concentrates and stores bile
Simple columnar epithelium wih microvilli and Rokitansky-Aschoff sinuses
No submucosa in gall bladder and no lymphatic vessels
Mucin-secreting glands

159
Q

Duct system of testes

A 
Seminiferous tubules ->
Rete testis->
Efferent ductules ->
Ductus epididymis->
Ductus (vas) deferens->
Ejaculatory duct
160
Q

Prostate gland

A

Surrounds proximal urethra

Secretes acid phosphatase, fibrinolysin, citric acid

161
Q

Penis

A

3 major masses of tissue surrounded by dense fibroelastic capsule (tunica albuginea)
Corpora cavernosa (2): dorsal erectile tissue
Corpus spongiosum: ventral, urethra

162
Q

Ovary

A

Elliptical organs supported by broad ligament of uterus

Produce ova and steroids (estrogen and progesterone)

Inner medulla: vasculature, nerves, CT
Outer cortex: ovarian follicles (oogenesis)

163
Q

Ovarian follicle development

A
  1. Primordial oocytes
  2. Multilayered theca interna (secretes estrogen)
  3. Surrounding stromal cells
  4. Split in theca interna forms Graafian follicle
164
Q

Oviducts

A

4 sections from ovary to uterus

  1. Infundibulum: contains fimbriae
  2. Ampulla: longest, fertilization
  3. Isthmus
  4. Uterine
165
Q

Uterus

A

3 layers

  1. Endometrium
  2. Myometrium
  3. Perimetrium

Cervix = lowest section of uterus connecting to vagina

166
Q

Vagina

A

Lined by nonkeratinized stratified squamous

Does not contain glands

167
Q

Mammary glands

A

Contain tubuloalveolar glands (produce milk), sebaceous glands, and sweat glands

Merocrine and apocrine secretion produce milk

Lactation is under control of hypothalamus and pituitary

168
Q

Functions of skin

A 
Protection 
Sensory 
Homeostasis 
Synthesis (vit D)
Excretion (sweat)
169
Q

Layers of skin

A

Epidermis
Basement membrane
Dermis
Hypodermis

170
Q

Layers of epidermis (inner to outer)

A

Bad Sprinters Get Leg Cramps

Basale: mitotic activity
Spinosum: langerhans cells, prickle layer
Granulosum: keratohyalin granules
Lucidum: only on thick skin
Corneum: flattened cells, few/no organelles

171
Q

Layers of basement membrane

A

Lamina lucida
Lamina densa (basal lamina)
Type 4 collagen, proteoglycans, laminin, fibronectin, anchoring fibrils
Reticular lamina: type 3 collagen

172
Q

Layers of dermis

A

Dermis has CT, vasculature, lymphatics, nerves, sweat glands, hair follicles

Papillary layer: thin, rete pegs, blood vessels

Reticular layer: fibrous and thick

173
Q

Specialized epidermal cells

A

Melanocytes: produce melanin
Keratinocytes: produce keratin
Langerhans cells: APCs
Merkel cells: touch sensation

Concentrated in basal layer

174
Q

Skin nerve endings

A

Free nerve endings: most abundant; touch, temperature, pain

Pacinian corpuscles: pressure and vibration

Meissner’s corpuscles: touch

Ruffini endings: mechanoreceptors

175
Q

Hair

A

Regulates body temp
Composed of keratinized cells
Produced by hair follicles

176
Q

Components of hair follicle

A

Bulb
Internal root sheath
External root sheath
Arrector pili muscle

177
Q

Types of sweat glands

A

Eccrine: body temp, sweat, located on entire body except lips and genitalia

Apocrine: produces pheromones, odorless serous secretion, located in axilla, areola, nipple, circumanal, external genitalia

Both SNS Innervation

178
Q

Sebaceous glands

A

Sebocytes: secrete sebum (oily substance on skin and hair)

Outgrowths of external root sheaths of hair follicles

179
Q

Layers of the eye

A 
Corneoscleral coat
   Cornea: "clear anterior portion 
   Limbus
   Sclera: "white portion"
Uvea 
   Choroid: vascular layer 
   Ciliary body: smooth muscle 
   Iris: smooth muscle, pigmentation 
      Pupil: central aperture of iris 
Retina 
   Pigment epithelium: melanin cells 
   Neural retina: rods and cones
180
Q

What is aqueous humor?

A

The watery fluid within the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye

181
Q

What is vitreous humor?

A

The transparent watery gel within the vitreous chamber

182
Q

Chambers of the eye

A

Anterior: cornea to iris
Posterior: iris to lens
Vitreous: lens to neural retina

183
Q

10 layers of retina

A

Outermost to innermost

  1. Pigment epithelium
  2. Photoreceptors cells (rods - light, cones - color)
  3. External limiting membrane
  4. Outer nuclear layer
  5. Outer plexiform layer
  6. Inner nuclear layer
  7. Inner plexiform layer
  8. Ganglion cell layer
  9. Optic nerve fibers
  10. Internal limiting membrane
184
Q

What vitamin is a source of retinal, an essential component of rods?

A

Vitamin A

Deficiency results in night blindness

185
Q

Optic disc

A

Collection of retinal ganglion cell nerve fibers leaving eye as optic nerve

Right and left nerves meet at optic chiasm
Central artery and vein of retina also edit here

Small blind spot on retina: 3mm to nasal side of macula
Only part of retina without rods or cones

186
Q

Macula lutea

A

Temporal to optic disc

Responsible for detailed central vision (ex: reading)

Fovea: center of macula with no blood vessels but high concentration of cones
Fovea = area of sharpest vision

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