General Chemistry Flashcards

Question 1

Q

Name some common strong acids.

Answer

A

HClO₄

HX (X=Br, Cl, I)

H₂SO₄

HNO₃

Question 2

Q

What is hydrogen bonding?

Answer

A

A type of intermolecular force
When a hydrogen is bonded to one of three highly electronegative atoms - nitrogen, oxygen, or flourine - the hydrogen atom carries only a small amount of the electron density in the covalent bond
The positively charged hydrogen interacts with the partial negative of flourine, oxygen, and nitrogen on nearby molecules
Hydrogen bonding tends to make molecular compounds have unusually high boiling points, compared to compounds of somilar molecular weights which do not hydrogen bond

Question 3

Q

What is solvation?

Answer

A

The electrostatic interaction between solute and solvent molecules
Also called dissolution
When water is the solvent: hydration
Solvation involves break intermolecular interactions bewtween solute molecules and solvent molecules and forming new intermolecular interactions between solute and solvent molecules

Question 4

Q

What is Temperature (T)?

Answer

A

Realted to the average kinetic energy of the particles of a substance
A way we scale how cold or hot something is
Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin

Question 5

Q

What is the name for CrO₄^2-?

Question 6

Q

What is a double-displacement reaction? What is another name for double-displacement reactions?

Answer

A

Also called metathesis reactions
In these reactions, elements from two different compounds swap places with each other to form two new compounds
This type of reaction occurs when one of the products is removed from the solution as a precipitate or gas or when two of the original species combine to form a weak electrolyte that remains undissociated in solution

Example: CaCl₂ (aq) + 2AgNO₃ (aq) → Ca (NO₃)₂ (aq) + 2AgCl (s)

Question 7

Q

What is the principle quantum number? The associated symbol? What values can it take on?

Answer

A

represents the relative overall energy of each orbital
The larger the integer value of n, the higher the energy level and radius of the electron’s shell
Theoretically, can take on any positive integer
Symbol: n

Question 8

Q

How does Le Châtlier’s Principle apply to changes in concentration?

Answer

A

When reactants or products are removed from a reaction in equilbrium, the reaction is moved from its minimum energy state

If reactants are removed (or products added), the reaction will spontaneously react int he reverse reaction
If reactants are added (or products removed), the reaction will spontaneously react in the forward reaciton

Question 9

Q

What are some general solubility rules?

Answer

A

All salts of Group 1 metals and all nitrate salts (NO₃^-) are soluble

Question 10

Q

What are the three isotopes of hydrogen? List the number of protons and neutrons in each.

Answer

A

Protium: 1 proton

Deuterium: 1 proton and 1 neutron

Tritium: 1 proton and 2 neutrons

Question 11

Q

What is the definition of a strong acid or base?

What are some strong acids we should be familiar with?

What are some strong bases we should be familiar with?

Answer

A

Strong acids and bases completely dissociate into their component ions in aqueous solution (the reaction goes to completion)

Example: NaOH →Na⁺ (aq) + OH^- (aq)

In a 1 M NaOH solution, completely dissociation yields 1M Na⁺ and 1M OH^-

Strong acids:

HCl (hydrochloric acid)
HBr (hydrobromic acid)
HI (hydroiodic acid)
H₂SO₄(sulfuric acid)
HNO₃(nitric acid)
HClO₄ (perchloric acid)

Strong Bases

NaOH (sodium hydroxide)
KOH (potassium hydroxide)

Question 12

Q

How does the first law of thermodynamics, ΔU = Q - W, apply to an isobaric process?

How would an adiabatic process look om a P-V graph?

Answer

A

Isobaric processes occur when the pressure of the system is constant
Do not alter the first law
Appears as a flat, horizontal line on the P-V graph

Question 13

Q

What is the Van der Waals equation of state?

Answer

A

An equation which seeks to correct for deviations from idality that occur when a gas does not closely follow the ideal gas law

[P + (n²a/V₂)] (V-nb) = nRT

a: corrects for the attractive forces between molecules (smaller for gases that are small and less polarizable and larger for gases that are larger and more polarizable)
b: corrects for the volume of the molecules themselves

Question 14

Q

What is molecular weight?

Answer

A

The sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule
Units: amu per molecule
Do not confuse this with molar mass (which is g/mol)

Question 15

Q

What is a disproportionation reaction?

Answer

A

A disproportionation reaction is a redox reaction in which both the oxidation and the reduction occur to atoms of the same element.

Question 16

Q

Many polyatomic anions contain oxygen and are therefore called oxyanions

With regard to the nomenclature of these ionic compounds, how would you name an element that has formed with an extended series of oxyanions?

Answer

A

Hypo- and hyper, which is written as per- are used to indicate less and more oxygen, respectively

Examples

ClO^- is hypochlorite

ClO₂^- is chlorite

ClO₃^- is clorate

ClO₄^- is perchlorate

Question 17

Q

What is the magnetic quantum number?

Answer

A

specifies the particular orbital within a subshell where an electron is most likely to be found at a given moment in time
Symbol: m_l
The possible values of ml are the integers between –l and +l, including 0
Example: the s subshell, with l = 0, limits the possible m_lvalues to 0, and because there is a single value of ml, there is only one orbital in the s subshell.
Example: The p subshell, with l = 1, limits the possible m_lvalues to −1, 0, and +1, and because there are three values for ml, there are three orbitals in the p subshell. The d subshell has five orbitals (−2 to +2), and the f subshell has seven orbitals (−3 to +3”)

Question 18

Q

Many polyatomic anions contain oxygen and are therefore called oxyanions

With regard to the nomenclature of these ionic compounds, how would you name an element that has formed with two oxyanions?

Answer

A

The name of the one with less oxygen ends in -ite and the name of the one with more oxygen ends it -ate

Examples

NO₂^- is nitrite

NO₃^- is nitrate

SO₃^2- is sulfite

SO₄^2- is sulfate

Question 19

Q

What is the trend for ionization energy on the periodic table?

Question 20

Q

What is the difference between the electronic geometry and the molecular geometry of a molecule?

Answer

A

Electronic geometry: describes the spatial arrangement of electrons around the central atom, including both the bonding and the lone pairs

Molecular geometry: describes the spatial arrangement of only the bonding paris of electrons; the coordination number, which is the central number of atoms that surround and are bonded to a central atom, is the relevant factor when determining molecular geometry

Example

CH₄, NH₃, and H₂O all have the same electronic geometry: each compound four pairs of electrons surround the central atom

However, because each molecule has a different coordination number, they have different molecular geometries: methane is tetrahedral, ammonia is trigonal pyramidal and water is angular or bent

Question 21

Q

According to the kinetic molecular theory of gases, what is the average kinetic energy of a gas particule?

Answer

A

The average kinetic energy of a gas particle is proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas

KE=1/2mv² = 3/2k_BT

k_B: the Bolzmann constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)

Question 22

Q

What is the molality of a solution? (Include equation)

Answer

A

m= moles of solute/kilograms of solvent

For dilute aqueous solutions at 25C, the molality is approximately equal to the molarity because the density of water at this temperature is 1kg/L

Example: If 10g NaOH are dissolved in 500g water, waht is the molality of the solution?

10gNaOh x 1mol/40g= 0.25moles of NaOH

m=moles of solute/kilograms of solvent = 0.25/0.5 = 0.5m

Question 23

Q

How does the first law of thermodynamics, ΔU = Q - W, apply to an isothermal process?

How would an isothermal process look om a P-V graph

Answer

A

Isothermal processes occur when the system’s temperature is constant, implying that the total erengy of the system (U) is constant throughout the process
When U is constant, then ΔU = 0
This means that 0 = Q - W and thus Q=W

Question 24

Q

When is a solute considered soluble?

Answer

A

Solutes are (generally) considered soluble when they have a molar solubility above 0.1 M
Sparingly soluble salts:: solutes that dissolve minimally in the solvent (under 0.1 M) are called sparingly soluble salts

Question 25

Q

What is homogenous catalysis? What is heterogenous catalysis?

Answer

A

Homogenous catalysis: the catalyst is int he same phase (solid, liquid and gas)

Heterogenous catalysis: the catalyst is in a distinct phase

Question 26

Q

Describe the period table trends for:

Electronegativity
Ionization energy
Atomic Radius
Electron afffinity

Question 27

Q

What is a paramagnetic materials?

Answer

A

Materials composed of atoms with unpaired electrons will orient their spins in alignment with a magnetic field, and the material will thus be weakly attracted to the magnetic field

Question 28

Q

Describe the periodic trend for ions

Answer

A

Ionic radii tend to decrease in size across a period (row) of the periodic table (left to right) and increase moving down a group (column).

Question 29

Q

What is a catalyst?

Answer

A

Increase the reactio nrate without themselves being consumed int he reaction

Work by:

increasing the frequency of collisions between the reactants
changing the relative orientation of the reactants and thus making a higher percentage of collisions effective
donating electron density to the reactants
reducing intramolecular bonding within the reactant molecules

Question 30

Q

When is a nonpolar covalent bond formed?

Answer

A

When atoms that have identical or nearly identical electronegativites share elecron pairs, they equally distribute these electrons, creating a nonpolar covalent bond
Note that only bonds between atoms of the same element will have exavtly the same electronegativity and therefore exhibit a purely equal distribution of electrons
Any bond between atoms with a difference in electronegativity less than 0.5 is generally considered nonpolar

Question 31

Q

What is the standard heat of combustion?

Answer

A

The enthalpy change associated with the combustion of a fuel

Determined in a similar fashion to that of Hess’s Law

Question 32

Q

What is the free energy change of the reaction?

What does a negative or positive free energy represent?

Answer

A

ΔG_rxn

the free energy change of the reaction is the difference between the free energy of the products and the free energy of ther reactants
negative free energy indicates an exergonic reaction (energy is given off)
positive free energy changes indicates endergonic reaction (energy is absorbed)

Question 33

Q

What are the 7 common diatomic molecules?

Answer

A

H₂

N₂

O₂

F₂

Cl₂

Br₂

I₂

These are perfect examples of nonpolar covalent bonds

Question 34

Q

What is a dimagnetic material?

Answer

A

Materials consisting of atoms that have all paired electrons will be slightly repelled by a magnetic field and are said to be diamagnetic

Question 35

Q

What are the important titration indicators and their pH ranges?

Answer

A

methyl red: goes from red to yellow, pH 4 to 6

bromothymol blue: goes from yellow to blue, pH 6 to 7.5

phenolpthalein: goes from clear to hot pink, pH 8 to 10

Question 36

Q

In a chemical reaction, what is an intermediate?

Answer

A

A molecule which does not appear in the overall reaction
Often difficult to detect experimentally because they may be consumed almost immediately after they are formed

Example:

Step 1: A₂ + B → A₂B

Step 2: A₂B + B → 2AB

Overall Reaction: A2+2B →A2B

A₂B is the intermediate in this reaction

Question 37

Q

What is a neutralization reaction?

Answer

A

When an acid and base react with each other to form a salt and often (but not always) water

HA + BOH ⇔ BA (s) + H₂O

Example: HCl +NaOH ⇒ NaCl +H₂O

Question 38

Q

What is the energy of an electron (Bohr Model)?

Answer

A

E= -R_H/n²

R_H: Rydberg unit of energy; 2.18 x 10-18 J/electron

n: principal quantum number of the electron

Question 39

Q

Name some weak acids.

Answer

A

HF

CH₃OOH

CH₃OH

Question 40

Q

What is the benefit of “coupling” reactions to one another?

Answer

A

Coupling is a common method for supplying energy to nonspontaneous reactions, by coupling a sponteaneous reaction to a nonspontaneous one

Example: the combustion of glucose is exergonic; the formation of peptide bonds is endergonic

Energy from the combustion of glucose can be stored in the bonds in GTP, which are then lysed to provide the energy for forming peptide bonds

Question 41

Q

What are standard conditions? When do you use them?

What is standard temperature and pressure? When do you use them?

Answer

A

standard conditions: has been defined for measuring the enthalphy, entropy and Gibbs free energy changes of a reaction

used for kinetics, equilibrium and thermodynamics problems

Standard Conditions: 25˚C, 1atm and 1 M concentrations

Standard temperature and pressure (STP): use for ideal gas calculations

STP : 0˚C and 1atm

Question 42

Q

What is the mole fraction of a compound (equation)?

Answer

A

XA= moles of a/ total moles of all species

The sum of mole fractions in a system will always equal one

Example: If 184 g of glycerol (C3H8O3, 92g/mol) is mixed with 180g water (H2O, 18g/mol), what is the mole fractions of the two compounds

180g water x 1mol/18g= 10 moles of water

184g of glyerol x 1mol/92g = 2 moles of glycerol

10+2=12 total moles

10/12 = 0.83= mole fraction of water

2/12 = mole fraction of glycerol

Question 43

Q

What is the difference in energy between two shells?

Answer

A

The difference in energy between two shells decreases as the distance from the nucleus increases because the energy difference is a function of

Question 44

Q

Given the collision theory of chemical kinetics, what is the rate of reaction equation?

Answer

A

rate = Z x f

Z: total number of collisions occuring per second

f: fraction of collisions that are effective

Remember:

Collision theory of chemical kinetics states that the rate of a reaction is proportional to the number of collisions per second beween reacting molecules
Also suggests, however, that not all collisions result in a chemical collision
Effective collision (one that leads to the formation of products) only occurs if the molecules collide with each other int he correct orientation and with sufficient energy to break their existing bonds and form new ones

Question 45

Q

What are the noble gases?

Where do you find them on the periodic table?

What are some of their characteristics?

Answer

A

Group VIIIA or Group 18
Inert gases because they have miminal chemical reactivity due to their filled valence shells
Have high ionization energies, little or no tendency to gain or lose elctrons and, for most of them, no mreasurable electronegativity
Extremely low boiling points and exist at gases at room temperature

Question 46

Q

What is chelation?

Answer

A

When the central cation is bonded to the same ligand multiple places

Requires large organic ligands that can even double back to for m a second or third bond with the central cation
Chelation therapy is ften used to sequester toxic metals

Question 47

Q

What is the effect of a catalyst on a reaction?

Answer

A

Reduces the E_a
A catalyst decreases the energies of activation, E_a, for both the forward and reverse reactions
Catalysts have no impact whatosever on the equilibrium position or the measurement of K_eq
Do not change a non-spontaneous reaction into a spontaneous reaction

Question 48

Q

What is Boyle’s Law?

Answer

A

For a given gaseous sample held at constant temperature (isothermal conditions), the volume of the gas is inversely proportional to its pressure

PV=k (a constant) or P₁V₁=P₂V₂

As pressure increases, volume decreases

Question 49

Q

With regard to the law of mass action, K_eq= [C]^c[D]^d/[A]^a{B]^b, are pure solids and liquids included in this equilibrium equation?

Answer

A

The concentrations of pure solids and pure liquids do not appear in the equilibrium constant expression
This is because the equilibrium is based on the activities of compounds, not on concentrations; the activities of pure solids and liquids are defined to be 1

Question 50

Q

What is the formula for acetate?

Answer

A

C₂H₃O₂^-

Question 51

Q

What is the formal charge? What is the associated equation?

Answer

A

The difference between the number of electrons assigned to an antom in a Lewis strucutre and the number of electrons normally found in that atom’s valence shell is the formal change

Formal Charge= V - N_nonbonding + 1/2N_bonding

V: normal number of electrons in the atom’s valence shell

N_nonbonding

Question 52

Q

What elements fall into the category of having an odd number of electrons (in regard to the octet rule)?

Answer

A

Any molecule with an odd number of valence electrons cannot distribute those electrons to give eight to each atom
Example: NO has 11 valence electrons

Question 53

Q

What is the van’t Hoff factor?

Answer

A

corresponds to the number of particles into which a compound dissacoiates in solution

Example: For NaCl, i=2, since in solution, for every NaCl, we get 1 Na⁺ and 1 Cl^- and 1+1=2

Question 54

Q

What is the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle?

Answer

A

It is impossible to simultaneously determine, with perfect accuracy, the momentum and the position of an electron

-

If we want to assess the position of an electron, the electron has to stop (thereby removing its momentum); if we want to assess its momentum, the electron has to be moving (thereby changing its position)

Question 55

Q

What is an electrolytic cell?

Answer

A

An electrochemical cell that drives a non-spontaneous redox reaction through the application of electrical energy

They are often used to decompose chemical compounds, in a process called electrolysis

ΔG > 0

emf= negative

Example: Electrolytic cells can be used to drive the nonspontaneous reaction of water into oxygen and hydrogen gas

Question 56

Q

What is a spontaneous process?

Answer

A

A process which can occur by itself without having to be driven by energy from an outside source

Calculating the change in Gibbs Free energy (ΔG) for a reaction will allow us to determine if the process is spontaneous
Note: spontaneous reactions may not necessarily happen quickly or go to completion

Question 57

Q

What is a boiling point? What happens to the boiling point when you add a solvent?

What is the equation for how we calculate a change in boiling point, given the addition of a solute?

Answer

A

The temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient pressure
Since adding a solute to a solvent results in a decrease in the vapor pressure of the solvent, then more energy and thus higher temperature will be required before its vapor pressure equals the ambient presssure

ΔT_b= iK_bm

ΔT_b: increase in boiling point

i: van’t Hoff factor

Kb: is a proportionality constant characteristic of a solvent (given on test day)

m: molality

Question 58

Q

What is an open system?

Answer

A

A system which can exchange both energy (heat and work) and matter with the surroundings

Example: pot of boiling water

Question 59

Q

What does the relationship between the reaction quotient (Q) and the equilibrium constant (K_eq) tell us about the reaction?

Answer

A

Q < K_eq, the foward reaction has not yet reached equilibrium

There is a greater concentration of reactants and smaller concentration of products than at equibrium
The forward rate of reaction is increased to restore equilibrium

Q = K_eq, then the reaction is in dynamic equilibrium

The reactants and products are present in equilibrium products
The forward and reverse reactions of reaction are equal

Q > K_eq, then the forward reaction has exceeded equilibrium

There is a greater concentration of products and a smaller concentration of reactants, then at equilibrium
The reverse rate of reaction is increased to restore equilibrium

Question 60

Q

What is an amphoteric species?

Answer

A

A species which reacts like an acid in a basic environment and like a base in an acidic environment

Example: Water (H₂O)

In the present of a base, H₂O + B- ⇔HB + OH^-
In the presence of an acid, HA + H₂O ⇔ H₃O⁺ + A^-

Question 61

Q

What is a chiral center? What does the number of chiral centers tell you about stereoisomers?

Answer

A

Chiral centers are tetrahedral atoms (usually carbons) that have four different substituents

Stereoisomers= 2ⁿ

Where n= number of chiral centers

Question 62

Q

With regard to the law of mass action, K_eq= [C]^c[D]^d/[A]^a{B]^b, does temperature affect K_eq?

Answer

A

Yes, K_eq is a characteristic oaf a particular reaction at a given temperature; the equilibrium constant is temperature-dependent

Question 63

Q

What is an endothermic process?

What is a exothermic process?

Answer

A

Endothermic process: processes in which the system absorbs heat

ΔQ > 0

Exothermic process: proccesses in which the system releases heat

ΔQ < 0

Question 64

Q

What is the mass number of an element?

Answer

A

The sum of the protons and neutrons in the atoms nucleus

Answer 62

A

Each of two or more compounds differing only in the spatial arrangement of their atoms

same connectivity of atoms, just different spatial arragements

Answer 63

A

Electrons move from anode to cathode
Current runs from cathode to anode

Answer 64

A

physical properties of solutions that depend on the concentration of dissolved particles but not on their chemical identity
Includes: vapor pressure depressure, freezing point depression, boiling point elevation and osmotic pressure

Answer 65

A

the lowest s subshell is 1s
the lowest p subshell is 2p
the lowest d subshell is 3d
the lowest f subshell is 4f

Answer 66

A

Anode: Where oxidation occurs

Cathode: where reduction occurs

Mneumonic: AN OX and RED CAT

Answer 67

A

most elements exist as two or more isotopes, and these isotopes are usually present in the same proportions in any sample of a naturally occurring element
the weighted average of these different isotopes is the atomic weight

Answer 68

A

Since liquids and solids are essentially incompressible, only chemical reactions that involve at least one gaseous species will be affected by changes in the system’s pressure and volume
When a system is compressed, its volume decreases and pressure increases , resuling in the system no longer being in equilibrium state
The system will move forward or in reverse, always toward whichever side has the lower total number of gas moles; if one increases the pressure in a system, it will respond by decreasing the total number of gas moles, thereby decreasing the pressure

(This is a product of the ideal gas law, which tells us there is a direct realtionship between the number of moles of gas ant eh pressureof the gas)

Answer 69

A

The enthalphy change acompannying a reaction being carried out under standard conditions

ΔH°rxn = ΣΔH°f, products - ΣΔH°f, reactants

Answer 70

A

Found

On the upper right side of the periodic table

Characteristics

Brittle
Show little or no metallic luster
Atomic level: high ionization energies, electron affinities, and electronegativities as well as small atomic radii and large ionic radii
Thus, poor conductors of heat and electricity
Inability to give up electrons

Answer 71

A

The electrons that are farthest from the nucleus have the strongest interactions with the surrounding environment and the weakest interactions with the nucleus

Answer 72

A

Power = Force x time

Power = IV

Power = Energy/time

Answer 73

A

The greater the concentration of the reactants, the greater the number of effective collisions per unit time
This leads to an increase in the frequency factor (A) of the Arrhenius equation
The reaction rate will increase for all but zero-order reactions
For reactions occuring in the gaseous state, the partial pressures of the gas reactants erve as a measure of concentration

Answer 74

A

Uses Lewis dot structure to predict the molecular geometry of covalently bonded molecules
States that the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms surrounding a central atom is determined by the repulsions between bonding and non-bonding electron pairs in the valence shell of the central atom
Electron pairs arrange themselves as far apart as possible, thereby minimizing repulsive forces

Answer 75

A

States that any pure ample of a given compound will contain the same elements in identical mass ratio
For example: every sample of water will contain two hydrogen atoms for every one oxygen atom; or, in terms of mass, for every one gram of hydrogen, there will be eight grams of oxygen

Answer 76

A

In subshells that contain more than one orbital, such as the 2p subshell with its three orbitals, the orbitals will fill according to Hund’s rule, which states that, within a given subshell, orbitals are filled such that there are a maximum number of half-filled orbitals with parallel spins

Answer 77

A

A type of intermolecular force
Polar molecules orient hemselves in such a way that the opposites charged ends of the respective molecular dipoles are closest to each other: the positive region of one molecule is clsoe the the negative region of another molecule
This arrangement is energetically favorable because an attractive electrostatic force is formed between two molecules
Dipole-dipole are present in soldi and liquid phases but become negligible in the gas phase because of signficantly increased distance between gas particles
Note: polar species tend to have higher melting and boiling points because of dipole-dipole interactions

Answer 78

A

drop the end of the name of the element and add -ide

Examples

H^- is hydride

F^- is flouride

O₂^- is oxide

S₂^- is sulfide

N₃^- is nitride

P₃^- is phosphide

Answer 79

A

The amount of a compound, measured in grams, that produces one equivalent of the particle

Gram equivalent weight = Molar mass/ n

n: the number of particles of interest produced or consumed per molecule of the compound in the reaction

Example: One woud need 31 grams of H₂CO₃ (molar mass of 62g/mol) to produce 1 equivalent of hydrogen ions, because each molecule of H₂CO₃ can donate two hydrogen ions (n=2)

Answer 80

A

the spin of the electron
has two spin orientations designated +1/2 and - 1/2
m_s
Whenever two electrons are in the same orbital, they must have opposite spins.
In this case, they are often referred to as being paired
Electrons in different orbitals with the same ms values are said to have parallel spins.

Answer 81

A

When the difference in electronegativites between two atoms is between 0.5 and 1.7, a polar covalent bond is formed
This results in the more electronegative atom acquiring a greater portion of the electron density, giving rise to a _partial negative charge (_𝛿^-)
The less electronegative element will acquire a smaller portion of the electron density, givint it a _partial positive charge (_𝛿⁺)

Answer 82

A

A substance which will dissociate to form an excess of OH^-

Answer 83

A

Dynamic equilibrium: when a reaction has reached its equilbrium but the forward and reverse reactions still continue, they just occur at the same rate

Static equilibrium: when a reaction has reached its equilbrium and the forward and reverse reactions have stopped

Answer 84

A

The slowest step in any reaction
Acts like a kinetic bottleneck, preventing the overall reaction from proceeding any faster than the slowest step

Answer 85

A

electrons in different orbitals with the same ms values are said to have parallel spins

Answer 86

A

When one or more electrons from an atom with low ionization energy, typically a metal, are transferred to an atom with high electron affinity, typically a nonmetal
The resulting electrostatic attraction between opposite charges is what holds the ions together

Example: NaCl

Answer 87

A

When two atoms with relative difference in eletronegativities come together in a covalent bond, they must negotitae the degree to which the electron pair will be shared
The atom with the higher electronegativity gets the larger share of the electron density
The polar bonds creates a dipole, with the positive end of the dipole at the less electronegative atomand thenegative end at the more electronegative atom

Answer 88

A

An electron pair acceptor

Answer 89

A

For a generic reversible reaction aA + bB ⇔ cC +dD, the law of mass action states:

if the system is at equilibrium at a constant temperature, then the following ratio is constant

K_eq= [C]^{c}[D]^d/ [A]^a[B]^b

Answer 90

A

The transfer of energy from one substance to another as a result of their differences in temperature
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: objects are in thermal equilibrium only when their temperatures are equal

Heat: process function not a state function

Answer 91

A

Analogous the the reaction quotient, Q, when referencing the equilibrium constant, K_eq

Given AmBn ⇔ mAn+ (aq) + nBm- (aq)

IP = [Aⁿ⁺]^m[B^m-]ⁿ

If IP < K_sp, the solution is unsaturated

If IP > K_sp, the solution is supersaturated

If IP = K_sp, the solution is saturated

Answer 92

A

ΔG° = -nFE°_cell

ΔG° : standard charnge in free energy

n: number of moles of electrons exchanged

F: Faraday’s constant

E°_cell: standard emf of the cell

This is the change in teh amount of energy avialable in an electrochemical cell to do work

Answer 93

A

Bonding electrons: the electrons which are involved in covalent bonding, located in the valence shell

Non-bonding electrons: any electorn not in the valence shell, which are not involved in covalent bonding

Answer 94

A

P/T = k or P₁/T₁= P₂/T₂

If the number of moles and volume is held constant, the pressure is is proportional to the temperature

Answer 95

A

The average energy that is required to break a particular type of bond between atoms in the gas phase
An endothermic processes

Units: kJ/mol of bonds broken

This can be an extension of Hess’s Law: The enthalphy change in a reaction is also a product of the bonds broken (endothermic) and bonds formed (exothermic)

ΔH°rxn = ΣΔH_{bonds broken}- ΣΔH_{bonds formed} = total energy absorbed - total energy released

Answer 96

A

The presence of solute particles in a solution interferes with the formation of the lattice arrangement of solvent molecules associated with the solid state
Thus, a greater amount of energy must be removed from the solution, resulting in a lower temperature, in order for a solution to solidify

ΔT_f= iK_fm

ΔT_f: freezing point depression

i: van’t Hoff factor

K_f the porportionality constant

m: molality of the solution

Answer 97

A

The atomic radius of an element is equal to one-half of the distance between the centers of two atoms of an element that are briefly in contact with each other

- Atomic radius decreases from left to right

As we move left to right, protons and electrons are added; because the electrons are being added only to the outermost shell and the number of inner-shell electrons remains the same, the increasing positive charge of the nucleus pulls the outer more elctrons more closely

- Atomic radius increases down a group

The increasing principal quantum number implies that the valence electrons will be found further away from the nucleus because the number of inner shells is increasing, separating the valence shell from the nucleus

Answer 98

A

The flow of as particles under pressure from one compartment to another, through a small opening

For two gases at the same temperature, the rate of effusion are proportional to the average speeds and these reates of effusion, in terms of molar mass, is the same as that for diffusion

Answer 99

A

Known as the representative elements
Include groups IA through VIIIA
The elements in these groups have their valence electrons in the orbitals of either s or p subshells

Answer 100

A

shorthand notation for representing the reactions in an electrochemical cell

Rules:

The reactants and products are listed from left to right in this form:

anode| anode solution (concentration) || cathode solution (concentration) | cathode

A single vertical line indicates a phase boundary
A double verticle line indicates teh presence of a salt bridge or some other type of barrier

Answer 101

A

The difference in potential (voltage) between two half cells under standard conditions

E°_cell= E° _{red, cathode} - E°_{red, anode}

Answer 102

A

CrO₄^2-

Answer 103

A

When a weak base is placed in aqueous solution, it will only partially dissociate; thus, there will be an equilibrium between the associated and dissociated components

BOH (aq) + H2O (l) ⇔ B+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

K_b= [B⁺] [OH^-] / [BOH]

The smaller the K_b, the weaker the acid and the less it will dissociate
K_b < 1 is a weak base

Answer 104

A

Under standard conditions, the most stable form a substance is called the standard state of a substance

Common standard states to know:

H₂ (g)

H₂O (l)

NaCl (s)

O₂ (g)

C (s, graphite)

Answer 105

A

An atoms tends to bond with other atoms so that it has eight electrons in its outermost shell, thereby forming a stable electron configuation similar to that of the noble gases

Exceptions

Hydrogen: which can only have two valence electrons
Lithium which bonds to attain two valence electrons
Beryllium which bonds to attain four valence electrons
Boron which bonds to attain six valence electrons
All elements in period 3 and greater, which can expand the valence shell to include more than eight electrons by incorporating d-orbitals

Answer 106

A

Whenever two electrons are in the same orbital, they must have opposite spins.
In this case, they are often referred to as being paired

Answer 107

A

NaOH

KOH

Ca(OH)₂

Mg(OH)₂

Answer 108

A

Adiabatic processes occur when no heat is exchanged beween the system in the environment; thus the thermal energy of the system is constant throughout the process (Q=0)

If Q=0, then ΔU = 0 - W, and thus, ΔU = - W

Answer 109

A

Describe a system in equilbrium state
Cannot describe the process of the system, i.e. how the system got to its current equilibrium
Are only useful for comparing one equilibrium state to another
are path indepdendent, but are not necessarily independent of one another

State functions include:

pressure (P)
density (ρ)
temperature (T)
volume (V)
enthalpy (H)
internal energy (U)
Gibbs free energy (G)
entropy (S)

Answer 110

A

the ground state of an atom is the state of lowest energy, in which all electrons are in the lowest possible orbitals
orbit with the smallest, lowest-energy radius was defined as the ground state (n = 1)

Answer 111

A

The tail is at the positive end and the head of the arrow is at the negative end

Answer 112

A

defined as the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by 1 degree Celsius

Specific heat of H2O: 1 cal/g x K

Answer 113

A

Groups IB to VIIIB
Considered to be metals; low electron affinities, low ionization energies and low electronegativites
High melting and high boiling points
Tend to be quite malleable and are good conductors due to the loosely held electrons that progressively fill the d-orbitals in their valence shells
Unique characteristic: many of them can have different possible charged forms (oxidation states)

Answer 114

A

molM = It/nF

mol M: the amount of metal ion being deposited at a specific electrode

I: current

t: time

F: Faraday constant (96,485C/mol e^-)

Mneumonic: calculating Moles of Metal, It is Not Fun

Answer 115

A

These are the atomic emission spectrum for hydrogen, when going down one

Lyman series: The group of hydrogen emission lines corresponding to transitions from energy levels n ≥ 2 to n = 1

Balmer series: The group of hydrogen emission lines corresponding to transitions from energy levels n ≥ 3 to n = 2

includes four wavelengths in the visible region.

Paschen series: The group of hydrogen emission lines corresponding to transitions from energy levelsn ≥ 4 to n = 3.

Answer 116

A

Some moleucles are more likely to react with each other in aqueous environment, while others are more likely to react in nonaqueoues solvents
The physical state of the meidium (liquid, gas, solid) can also have a effect
Generally, polar solvents are preferred because their dipole tends to polarize the bonds of the reactants, thereby lengthening and weakening them, permitting the reaction to occur faster

Answer 117

A

Elements which are stable with fewer than eight electrons in their valence shell
Hydrogen (stable with 2 electrons)
Helium (2)
Lithlium (2)
Beryllium (4)
Boron (2)

Answer 118

A

The Gibbs Free Energy of the reaction
Note that whether or not the reaction happens does not have an impact on how fast the reaction occurs

Answer 119

A

A technique used to measure transferred heat
Example: bomb calorimeter or decomposition vessel
A sample of matter, typically a hydrocarbon, is placed in the stell decomposition vessel, which is then filled with almost pure oxygen gas
The decomposition vessel is then placed in an insultated container holding a known mass of water
The contents of the decomposition vessel are ignited by an electronic ignition vessel
The material combusts in the presence of oxygen and the heat that evolves is the heat of the combustion reaction
Because W= PΔV and the volume is constant, no work is done

Because no heat is exchanged betweeen the calorimeter and the rest of the unvierse,

ΔU_system+ ΔU_surroundings = ΔU_calorimeter = Q_calorimeter - W_calorimeter = 0

Then,

U_system = -U_surroundings

and because no work is done,

q_system = -q_surroundings

thus…

m_steelc_steelΔT +m_oxygenc_oxygenΔT = -m_waterc_waterΔT

Answer 120

A

only partially dissociate in aqueous solutions

Answer 121

A

- The charge can be listed as a Roman numeral following the name of the element

Examples

Fe²⁺is Iron(II) and Fe³⁺is Iron(III)

Cu+ is Copper(I) and Cu2+ is Copper (II)

The endings -ous and -ic can be added to the roof ot the Latin name of the element, to respresent ions with lesser and greater charge, respectively

Examples

Fe²⁺is Ferrous and Fe³⁺is Ferric

Cu+ is Cuprous and Cu2+ is Cupric

Answer 122

A

Also know as ionization potential
The energy required to remove an electron rom a gaseous species
Always requires the input of heat (an endothermic process)
Trend: ionization energy increases from left to right across a period and from bottom to top in a group

Answer 123

A

States that the rate of a reaction is proportional to the number of collisions per second beween reacting molecules
Also suggests, however, that not all collisions result in a chemical collision
Effective collision (one that leads to the formation of products) only occurs if the molecules collide with each other int he correct orientation and with sufficient energy to break their existing bonds and form new ones
Minimum energy of collision necesary for a reaction to take place is called the activation energy (E_a)

Answer 124

A

The enthalphy required to produce one mole of a compound from its elements in their standard states
Remember: standard state refers to the most stable phyiscal sate of an element or compound at 298K and 1 atm

Symbol: ΔH°_f

Answer 125

A

the empirical formula of any ionic or covalent network solid compound used as an independent entity for stoichiometric calculations. It is the lowest whole number ratio of ions represented in an ionic compound
This is because no molecule actually exits, because of the way in which the oppositely charges ions arrange themselves in a three dimension shape

Example: NaCl and the lattice it forms

Since no molecule exits, molecular weight is not possible; thus, the term formula weight is used instead

Answer 126

A

A measure of concentration in equivalents/L

- Molarity = Normality/n

Example:

In a 1N solution of HCl, the molarity of HCl is 1M because HCl is monoprotic
In a 1N solution of H₂CO₃, the molarity of H₂CO₃ is 0.5 M because H₂CO₃ is diprotic

Answer 127

A

A special type of galvanic cell, however, the electrodes are chemically identical
Thus, current is generated as a function of the concentration gradient established between the two solutions surrounding the electrodes

Answer 128

A

Refer to either non-integer orders (fractions) (also known as broken-order)
or refer to reactions with rate orders that vary over the course of a reaction

Answer 129

A

A reaction that proceeds in one direction only
The reaction goes to completion and the maximum amount of product formed is determined by the amount of the limiting reagent initially present

Answer 130

A

Rate Law: rate = k [A]^x [B]^y

To figure out B, we see that a doubling in B leads to a 4 fold change in the rate, thus 2^y= 4, so y=2

To figure out A, we see that a doubling in A, doubles the rate, thus 2^x= 2, so x=1

Thus, we have a rate law of: k [A]^{1} [B]²

To figue out k, take the data and fill in the rate law:

2.0M/s = k [1.00M] [1.00M]

so k= 2.0M^-2S^-1

Answer 131

A

Atom is in an excited state when at least one electron has moved to a subshell of higher than normal energy

If electron was promoted to an orbit with a larger radius (higher energy), the atom is in the excited state

Answer 132

A

E = hf

h: Planck’s constant; 6.626 × 10⁻³⁴ J·s

f : frequency of the radiation

Answer 133

A

Conjugate acid: the acid that is formed when a base gains a proton

Conjugate base: the base that is formed when an acid loses a proton

Example:

HCO₃^- (aq) + H₂O (l) ⇔ CO₃^2-(aq) + H₃O⁺ (aq)

CO₃^2-: conjugate base of HCO₃^- (and now a weak acid)

H₃O⁺ : conjugate acid of H₂O (and now a weak base)

Answer 134

A

At constant pressure, the volume of a gas is proprtional to its aboslute temperature, expressed in Kelvins

V/T= k or V₁/T₁= V₂/T₂

Answer 135

A

Chiral: asymmetric in such a way that the structure and its mirror image are not superimposable

Achiral: A molecule is achiral if it is superimposable on its mirror image.

Answer 136

A

Dipole moment: A vector quantity which desctibes the separative of positive and negative charges in a polar bond

p=qd

p: dipole moment
q: magnitude of the charge
d: displacement vector separating the two partial charges

Answer 137

A

Draw the Lewis dot structure of the molecule
Count the total number of bonding and nonbonding electron pairs in the valence shell of the central atom
Arrange the electron paris around the central atom so they are as far apart as possible

Answer 138

A

To determine the emf of the cell under non-standard conditions

E_cell = E°_cell - (RT/nF) lnQ

E°_cell: emf of the cell under standard conditions

R: ideal gas constant

T: temrperature in Kelvins

Q: reaction quotient for the reaction in

If we assume T= 298 K then…

E_cell = E°_cell - (0.0592/n) logQ

Answer 139

A

Accounts for vapor pressure depression caused by solutes in a solution; as a solute is added to a solvent, the vapor pressure of the solvent decreases proportionally
Only holds when the attraction between the different components of the mixture is equal to the attraction between the molces of any one component in its own state

P_A= X_AP_A°

P_A: vapor pressure of solvent A when solutes are present

X_A: mole fraction of solvent A in the solution

P_A°= vapor pressure of solvent A in its pure state

Example: What is the change in vapor pressure when 180g glyceraldehyde (C₃H₆O₃) are added to 0.18L of water at 100°C?

The density of water at 100C is about 1g/mL and the vapor pressure of water at the same temperature is 1atm because this is the boiling point of water
Mole fraction of glyceraldehyde = 180g x 1mol/92 g = 2
Mole fraction of water = 0.18L x 1mol/18g = 1L

P_A= (0.83)(1) = 0.83

Change in vapor pressure is 1atm - 0.83 atm = 0.17atm

Answer 140

A

Known as the nonrepresentative elemetns
Include the transition elements, which have valence electrons in the s and d subshells
Also include the lathanide and actinide series, which have valence electrons in the s and f subshells

Answer 141

A

Bond length: the average distance between the two nuclei off the atoms in a bond

As the number of shared electrons pairs increases, the two atoms are pulled closer together, resulting in a decreased bond length
Thus, for a given pair of atoms, a triple bond is shorter than a double bond, which is shorter than a single bond

Answer 142

A

Because each element can have its electrons excited to a different set of distinct energy levels, each possesses a unique atomic emission spectrum, which can be used as a fingerprint for the element– this is the atomic emission spectrum
This is how we identify the components of a star

Answer 143

A

Maximum number of electrons within a subshell = 4l + 2

Answer 144

A

Given A_mB_n ⇔ mAⁿ⁺ (aq) + nB^m- (aq)

K_sp = [Aⁿ⁺]^m[B^m-]ⁿ

Like all other equilibrium constants, the solubility equilibrium is temperature dependent

Example: The molar solubility of Fe(OH)₃ isn an aqueous solution is 4 x 10^-10 mol/L.

The dissociation reaction is thus: Fe(OH)₃ ⇔ Fe3+ (aq) + 3OH^-

The Ksp for this reaction is: [Fe³⁺] [OH^-]³ = Ksp = [x][3x³]

Answer 145

A

Stard free energy of a a reaction is the free energy change thar occurs when the reaction is carried out unders standard state condtitions, (T=298 K and P=1atm)

ΔG°_rxn = ΣΔG°_{f, products}- ΣΔG°_{f, reactants}

Answer 146

A

The resulting ions are named by adding the word hydrogen or dihydrogen to the front of the anion’s name
the older method uses the prefix bi- to indicate the addition of a single hydrogen ion

Example

HCO₃^-is hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate

HSO₄^-is hydrogen sulfate

H₂PO₄^-is dihydrogen phosphate

Answer 147

A

The measure of the attractive force that an atom will exert on an electron in a chemical bond
The greater the elctronegativity of an atom, the more it attracts electrons within a bound
The lower the ionization energy, the lower the electronegativity; the higher the ionization energy, the higher the electronegativity

- Electronegativity increases across a period from left to right

- Decreases in a group from top to bottom

Answer 148

A

p=m/V = PM/RT

Answer 149

A

A reaction in which the rate of formation of product C is independent of changes in the concentrations of any of the reactants, A and B
Have a constant reaction reate equal to the rate constant, l

rate=k [A]⁰[B]⁰ = k

Remember: k is a product of temperature, or by adding a catalyst and changing E_a, so it is possible to change the rate of a zero-order reaction by changing these factors

Answer 150

A

States that in a chemical solution, if the concentration of any one of the ions is increased, then, some of the ions in excess should be removed from solution, by combining with the oppositely charged ions

Example: If a salt, such as CaF₂ is dissolved into water alrady containing Ca²⁺ ions (from some other salt, perhaps CaCl₂), the solution will dissolve less CaF₂ than would an euqal mount of pure water

Answer 151

A

Highly reactive nonmetals with 7 valence electrons; desperate to complete their octet by gaining an electron
Group VIIA or Group 17
Due to their high electronegativities and electron affinities, are especially reactive toward the alkali and alkaline earth metals
Not found naturally in their elemental state bur rather as ions (halides) or diatomic molecules

Answer 152

A

the minimum pressure which needs to be applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of its pure solvent across a semipermeable membrane

Π= iMRT

Π: osmotic pressure

i: van’t Hoff factor

M: molarity of the solution

R: the ideal gas constant

T: temperature

Answer 153

A

Dichromate

Answer 154

A

A system which can exchange energy (heat and work) but not matter with the surroundings

Example: steam radiator

Answer 155

A

The (n + l) rule can be used to rank subshells by increasing energy.
This rule states that the lower the sum of the values of the first and second quantum numbers (n + l), the lower the energy of the subshell.
If two subshells possess the same (n + l) value, the subshell with the lower n value has a lower energy and will fill with electrons first.

Answer 156

A

A species that donates hydrogen ions (H⁺)

Answer 157

A

Energy spontaneously disperses from being localized to being spread out of it is not hindered to doing so
This is basically entropy
Examples: hot tea cools down, by the thermal energy in the hot spreading spreading out to the cooler air around it

Answer 158

A

Bohr assumed that the hydrogen atom consisted of a central proton around which an electron traveled in a circular orbit. He postulated that the centripetal force acting on the electron as it revolved around the nucleus was created by the electrostatic force between the positively charged proton and the negatively charged electron

Answer 159

A

The emf correspond to the voltage or electrical potential difference of the cell
If the emf is positive, the cell is able to release energy (ΔG < 0), which means its spontaneous
If the emf is negative, the cell must absorb energy (ΔG < 0), which means its nonspontaneous

Answer 160

A

A solution in which the solvent is water
Symbolized by (aq)

Answer 161

A

Releases a photon of energy
The electromagnetic energy of these photons can be determined by

E=hc/λ

h: Planck’s constant
c: speed of light in a vacuum (3.00 x 10⁸m/s)

λ: wavelength of the radiation

Answer 162

A

Also called semimetals
Share some characteristics with both metals and nonmetals
Atomic level: electronegativities and ionization energy of the metalloids lie between metals and non metals
Their physical properties, such as densities, melting points, and boiling points, vary widely and can be combinations of metallic and nonmetallic characterisics
Reactivities of metalloids dependent on the elements with which they are reacting

Answer 163

A

a quantity of any substance (atoms, molecules, etc.) equal to the number of particles thar are found in 12 grams of Carbon-12
The number of particles found in this is Avogadro’s Number, 6.022 x 10²³particles

Answer 164

A

The energy dissipated by a gaseous species when it gains an electron
An exothermic process
Halogens are most “greedy” when it comes to this, as one electron will allow them to achieve a noble gas configuration

Note: As this is an exothermic process, ΔHrxn is negative, but the electron affinity is positive (for example, acquisition of one electron releases 200kJ/mol, so the ΔHrxn= - 200kJ/mol, but the electron affinity is 200kJ/mol

Answer 165

A

When molecules collide with energy equal to or greater than activation energy, they form a transition state in which the old bonds are weakened and the new bonds begin to form
The transition state, also called the activated complex, has greater energy than both the reactants and the products

Answer 166

A

Represents a hypotheical gas with molecules that have no intermolecular forces and that occupy no volume
Real gases delviate from this ideal behavior at high pressures (low volumes) and low temperatures, but many compressed gases demonstrate behavior that is close to ideal

Answer 167

A

reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from one chemical species to another

Answer 168

A

Atoms that engage in ionic bonding
This arrangement maximizes the attractive forces between oppositely charged ions and minimizes the repulsive forces between similarly charged ions

Answer 169

A

This is the temperature and pressure at which there is no distinction between the liquid and gas phases
The fluids beyond this point are called supercritical fluids
The heat of vaporiztion at this point and for all temperatures and pressures above the critical point values is zero
Logic behind this: as a liquid is heated in a closed system, its density decreases and the density of the vapor sitting above it increases

Answer 170

A

If only the wire were provided for electron flow, the reaction would soon stop because an excess positive charge would build up on the anode, and an excessive negative charge with build up on the cathode
Eventually, the excessive charge accumulation woudl provide a countervoltage large enough to prevent the oxidation-reduction reaction from taking place and the current would cease
This gradient is dissipated by the salt bridge, which permits the exchange of cations or anions
The salt bridge contains an inert electrolyte, ususally KCl or NH4NO3, which contains ions that will not react with the electrodes or with the ions

Answer 171

A

Can refer to either the amount of a product predicted (theoretical yield) or the amount of a producted actually obtained (raw or actual yield) when a reaction is carried out

Percent Yield = Actual Yield/ Theoretical Yield x 100%

Answer 172

A

System: the matter that is being observed; the total amount of reactants and products in a chemical solution, the amount of solute and solvent used to create a solution or the amount of gas in a balloon

Surroundings: everythig outside the system

Answer 173

A

A single reactant breaks down into two or more products, usually as a result of high heating, high-frequency radiation, or electrolyis

Example: 2HgO (s) → 2Hg (l) + O₂ (g)

Occurs when heat is applied to HgO

Answer 174

A

First, balance the elements which appear once on each side of the reaction
Repeat this, until there are no more elements that only appear once on each side
Then attack the others; at this point, it’s ok to have fractions
Then, make all the fractions into whole numbers and check your work

Answer 175

A

Group IIA or Group 2
Share most of the characteristics of the alkali metals, except that they have a slightly higher Zeff, thus slightly smaller radii
They have two electrons in their valence shell, both of which can be easily removed to form divalent cations

Answer 176

A

pOH= -log[OH^-] = log (1/OH^-])

Answer 177

A

A specific type of double-displacement reaction in which an acids reacts with a base to product a salt (and, usually, water)

Example: HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H₂O (l)

Answer 178

A

ΔG= negative, the reaction is spontaneous

ΔG = positive, the reaction is nonspontaneous

ΔG= 0, the system in a state of equilibrium and ΔH= TΔS

Answer 179

A

The reaction quotient serves as a quantitative evaluation of how far the reaction has proceeded toward the equilibrium.

Q= [C]c[D]d/ [A]a[B]b

Q in relation to K_eq tells us about how far the reaction has proceeded

Answer 180

A

Acid equivalent: equal to one mole of H⁺ ions

Base equivalent: eqal to one mole of OH^-ions

Polyvalent: each mole of acid or base liberates more than one acid or base equivalent

Answer 181

A

States that the energy of the emitted photon corresponds to the difference in energy between the higher-energy initial state and the lower-energy final state

Answer 182

A

P₁V₁/T₁= P₂V₂/T₂

Answer 183

A

Group VIA or Group 16
An eclectic group of nonmetals and metalloids
Not as reactive as the halogens, they are crucial for normal biological functioning
They have six electrons in their valence shell
Due to their proximity to the metalloids, generally have small atomic radii and large ionic radii
Important ones: Oxygen, sulfur, selenium

Answer 184

A

A species that accepts hydrogen ions (H+)

Answer 185

A

Write the equilibrium reaction

CH₃COOH (aq) + H₂O (l) ⇔ H₃O⁺ (aq) + CH₃COO^- (aq)

K_a= [H₃O⁺] [CH₃COO^-] / [CH₃COOH]

Recognize that acetic acid is a weak acid so the concentration of CH3COOH at equilibrium is equal to initial concentration, 2.0M, minus the ammount dissociated, x
- Likeweise, [H₃O⁺] = [CH₃COO^-] = x because each molecule of CH3COOH dissociates into one of each
Write out the equation

K_a= [x] [x] / [2.0M - x] = 1.8 x 10^-5

Since x is very small, since we are working with a weak acid, ignore it on the bottom

K_a= [x] [x] / [2.0M] = 1.8 x 10^-5

Solve for x

x²= 3.6 x 10^-5or 36 x 10^-6(to make square rooting it easier)

x= 6 x 10^-3M

Answer 186

A

Changing the temprature of a system will cause the change in the K_eq(and not the Qc or Qp as with changes in concentration and pressure)
If a reaction is endothermic (ΔH > 0), heat functions as a reactant
If a reaction is exothermic (ΔH < 0), heat functions as a product

Answer 187

A

for nearly all reactions, the reaction rate will increase as the temperature increases
the temperature of a substance is a measure of the particles’ average kinetic energy, increasing the temperature increases the average kinetic enregy of the molecules; consequently, the prorportion of reactants gaining enough energy to surpass E_a increases with higher temperature

Answer 188

A

States that all gases at constant temperature and pressure occupy volumes that are directly proportional to the number of moles of gas present

Equal amounts of all gases at the same temperature and pressure will occupy equal volumes

n/V= k (a constant)

or

n1/V1=n₂/V₂

Note: this implies: as the numbr of moles of a gas increases, the volume increases in direct proportion

Answer 189

A

a measure of the spontaneous dispersal of energy at a specific temperature: how much enery is spread out or how widely energy becomes spread out

ΔS = Q_rev/T

ΔS: change in etropy

Qrev: heat that is gained or lost in a reversible process

T: temperature in kelvin

Units: J/mol x K

Answer 190

A

A reaction which has two or more reactants forming one product

Example: 2H₂ (g) + O₂ (g) →2H₂O (g)

Combination reactions have more reactants than products

Answer 191

A

A state function; a change in Gibbs free energy, ΔG, is a measure of the change in enthalpy and change in entropy
indicates whether a reaction is spontaneous or non-spontaneous

ΔG= ΔH- TΔS

Mneumonic: Goldfish are (equals sign) Horrible without (minus sign) Tartar Sauce

Answer 192

A

Gases are made up of particles with volumes that are negligible compared to the container volume
Gas atoms or molecules exhibit no internmolecular attractions or repulsions
Gas particles are in continuous, random motion, undergoing collisions with other particles and the container walls
Collisions between any two gas particles (or between particles and the container walls) are elastic, meaning that there is conservation of both momentum and kinetic energy
The average kinetic energy of gas particles is proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas (in kelvins) and it is the same for all gases at a given temperature, irrespective of chemical identity or atomic mass

Answer 193

A

It=nF

where n is the moles of electrons and F is Faraday’s constant. Use 100,000 or 10⁵ Coulomb/mole of electrons for any calculation.

(C/s)(s)=(mol e⁻)(C/mol e⁻)

Example: A current is passed through a Ga(NO₃)₃ solution for 1.5 hours, and after this time period the mass of metal produced was 6.3 grams. What is the current, in amperes, that is required to produce such an amount of gallium?

Solution: Image

Answer 194

A

The maximum amount of a substance that can be dissolved in a particular solvent at a given time
When this maximum amount of solute has been added, the solution is saturated

Answer 195

A

ΔH_fusion (heat of fusion): when undergoing a phase change, transitioning across the solid-liquid boundary

ΔH_vap (heat of vaporization): when undergoing a phase change, transitioning across the liquid-gas boundary

q=mL

m: mass

L: latent heat, the enthalpy for an isothermal process

Answer 196

A

A technique used to measure transferred heat

Example: a coffee-cup calorimeter

An insulated contained covered with a lid and filled with a solution in which a reaction or some physical process is occurring; the incident pressure, which is the atmospheric pressure, remains constant throughout the process and teh tmerpature can be measured as the reaction progresses
There should be sufficient thermal insulation (such as Styrofoam) to ensure that the heat being measured is an accurate representation of the reaction, without gain or loss of heat to the environment

Answer 197

A

1.7 on the Pauling scale

Answer 198

A

Equivalents = mass of a gompound (g) / gram equivalent weight (g)

Answer 199

A

The greater an atom’s Z_effor the closer the valence electrons are to the nucleus, the more tightly bound they are
This makes it more difficult to remove one or more electrons, increasing the ionization energy
Thus, higher Z_eff, higher inoization energy

Answer 200

A

A state function, which describes heat changes at constant pressure
We can calculate the change in enthalpy (ΔH) for a system that has undergone a process, for example, a chemical reaction, by comparing the final state of enthalpy compared to the initial state, irrespective of the path taken

ΔHrxn = H_products - H_reactants

ΔH_rxn>0; endothermic process

ΔH_rxn <0; exothermic process

Answer 201

A

Permanganate

Answer 202

A

As an amphoteric compound, water can react with itself (autoionization)

H₂O (l) + H₂O (l) ⇔ H₃O⁺(aq) + OH^-(aq)

K_w= [H₃O⁺][OH^-] = 10^-14 at 25°C

Each mole of water that autoionizes produces one mole of hydrogen (or hydronium) ions and hydroxide ions, so the concentrations of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions are always equal in pure water at equilibrium

[H₃O⁺] and [OH^-] = 10^-7M

Answer 203

A

Any element in period 3 or greater can hold more than eight electrons
Includes: phosphous (10), sulfur (12), chlorine (14) and many more

Answer 204

A

Also known as an isovolumetric process, experience no change in volume
Because the gas neither expands nor compresses, no work is performed in such a process (W=0)

If W=0, then , ΔU = Q - 0 and thus, ΔU = Q

Answer 205

A

Can function as both galvanic and electrolytic

Answer 206

A

A second-orer reaction has a rate that is proportional to either the concentrations of two reactants or to the square of the concentration of a single reaction
Second-order rate law often suggests a phyiscal collision between two reactant molecules, especially if the rate rate law is first-order with respect ot each of the two reactants

rate=k [A]¹ [B]¹ or rate=k [A]² or rate=k [B]²

Answer 207

A

Electrochemical cell that derives electrical energy from spontaneous redox reactions taking place within the cell. It generally consists of two different metals connected by a salt bridge, or individual half-cells separated by a porous membrane.

ΔG <0

Ecell or emf = positive

Answer 208

A

-

Negatively charged ions (anions) have additional electrons that fill according to the same rules as above; for example, if fluorine’s electron configuration is [He] 2s²2p⁵, then F^– is [He] 2s²2p⁶

^- Positively charged ions (cations) are a bit more complicated: start with the neutral atom, and remove electrons from the subshells with the highest value for n first. If multiple subshells are tied for the highest n value, then electrons are removed from the subshell with the highest l value among these

Example: What is the electron configuration of Fe3+?

Solution: The electron configuration of iron is [Ar] 4s²3d⁶. Electrons are removed from the 4s subshell before the 3d subshell because it has a higher principal quantum number. Therefore, Fe3+ has a configuration of [Ar] 3d⁵, not [Ar] 4s²3d³.

Answer 209

A

A type of intermolecular force
While the bonding electrons in a non-polar covalent bond may appear to be shared equally between two atoms, at any point in time, they will actually be located randomly throughout the orbital
Thus, in a given moment, the electron density may be unequally distributed between two forces
This results in a rapid polarization and coutnerpolarization of the electron cloud and the formation of a short-lived dipole moment
These dipoles interact with the electron cloud densities of neighboring compounds, inducing more dipoles in these compounds
A type of Van der Waals force
This is the weakest force because they are the result of induced dipoles that change and shift moment to moment and do not extend over long distances and are only signficiant when molcules are in close proximity

Answer 210

A

If the equilibrium constant for a reaction in one direction is K_eq, the equilibrium constant for the reverse reaction is 1/K_eq

Answer 211

A

provides a rate constant for a reaction
k: rate constant of a reaction

A: the frequency factor (how often molecules in a certain reaction collide)

E_a: activation energy of the reaction

R: ideal gas constant

T: temperature in kelvin

Note: the equation is less important than the relationships between variables

Answer 212

A

Moles = Mass of sample (g) / Molar mass (g/mol)

Answer 213

A

Absorb light
Higher potential
Excited
Distant (from the nucleus)

Answer 214

A

M_iV_i=M_fV_f

M: molarity

Answer 215

A

q = mcΔT

q: heat
m: mass
c: specific heat

ΔT: change in temperature (in celsius or kelvins)

Answer 216

A

an abstract one-dimensional coordinate which represents progress along a reaction pathway, tracing the reaction from reactants to products

Answer 217

A

PV=nRT

P: pressure

V: volume

n: number of moles

T: temperature

R: 8.21 x 10-2 L atm/mol K

Answer 218

A

rate = k [A]^x [B]^y

Note: This is the rate law

k: the reaction rate coefficient or rate constant

x and y: orders of the reaction, x is the order with respect to A, y is the order with respect to B

- the overall order of the reaction is the sum of x an y

Units: molarity per second

Answer 219

A

Chromium (and other elements in its group)

Chromium (Z = 24) should have the electron configuration [Ar] 4s²3d⁴ according to the rules established earlier. However, moving one electron from the 4s subshell to the 3d subshell allows the 3d subshell to be half-filled: [Ar] 4s¹3d⁵ (remember that s subshells can hold two electrons and d subshells can hold ten). While moving the 4s electron up to the 3d-orbital is energetically unfavorable, the extra stability from making the 3d subshell half-filled outweighs that cost.

Copper (and other elements in its group)

Copper (Z = 29) has the electron configuration [Ar] 4s¹3d¹⁰, rather than [Ar] 4s²3d⁹; a full d subshell outweighs the cost of moving an electron out of the 4s subshell.

Answer 220

A

An equivalent is the amount of a substance needed to do one of the following:

react with or supply one mole of hydrogen ions (H+) in an acid–base reaction
react with or supply one mole of electrons in a redox reaction

Example: One mole of HCl can donate one mole of H⁺ to a solution (one equivalent), one mole of H₂SO₄ can donate two moles of H⁺ to a solution (two equivalents) and one mole of H₃PO₄ can donate three moles of H⁺ to a solution (three equivalents)

Answer 221

A

A substance will will dissociate to form an excess of H⁺

Answer 222

A

Empirical formula: gives the simplest whole-number ratio of the elements in the compound

Molecular formula: gives the exact number of atoms of each element in the compound and is a multiple of the empiric formula

Example:

Empiric formula for benzene: CH
Molecular formula for benzene: C₆H₆

Answer 223

A

The movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration through a medium
The kinetic molecular theory of gases predicts that heavier gases diffuse more slowly than lighter ones because of their different average spepeds; because all gas particles have the same average kinetic energy at the same time, it must be true that particles with greater mass travel at slowe average speed

r1/r2 = √M₂/M₁

r: rate of diffusion

M: molar masses

Answer 224

A

sigma (σ) bonds occur when orbitals overlap head-to-head; these bonds allow for free rotation about their axes becuase the electron density of the bondign orbital is a single linear accumulation between the atomic nuclei
pi (π) bonds occur when orbitals overlap in such a way that there are two parallel cloud densisites; do not allow for free rotation between the electron densities of the orbitals are parallel and cannot be twisted in such a way that allows continuous overlapping of the clouds of electron densities

Answer 225

A

Noble gases would be predicted to have the highest electron affinities, according to the trend, but they actually have electron affinities on the order of zero because they already possess a stable octete and cannot readily accept any electrons
Halogens are most “greedy” when it comes to this, as one electron will allow them to achieve a noble gas configuration

Answer 226

A

A type of covalent bond in which the shared electrons are contributed by only one of the two atoms

Answer 227

A

Charge: 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C

Mass: 1 amu

Answer 228

A

Rules in order to determine ionic radii: Metals lose electrons and become positive; nonmetals gain electrons and become negative; metalloids can go in either direction, but tend to follow the trend based on which side of the the metalloid line they follow
Nonmetals close to the metalloid line: these gain electrons while their nuclei maintain the same chage; thus possessing a larger nuclei than their counterparts closer to Group VIIIA
Metals close to the metalloid line: lose electrons, but nuclei is the same, so ionic radii is smaller

Answer 229

A

A first-order reaction has a rate that is directly proportional to only one reactant, such that a doubling of that reactant results in a doubling of the rate formation of the product

rate=k [A]¹ or rate=[B]¹

Answer 230

A

Bond energy is the energy required to break a bond by separating its components into their isolated, gaseous, atomic states
The greater the number of electrons shared between the atoms nuclei, the more energy is reqeuired to break the bonds holding the atoms together
Thus, triple bonds have the greatest bond energy and single bonds have the lowest bond energy

Answer 231

A

Weakest

Dispersion forces or London forces
dipole-dipole interactions
hydrogen bonding

Strongest

Answer 232

A

The size of the atomic mass unit is defined as exactly 1/12 the mass of the carbon-12 atom, approximately 1.66 × 10⁻²⁴ g
amu is approximately equal to the mass of a proton or a neutron

Answer 233

A

states that in the ground state of an atom or ion, electrons fill atomic orbitals of the lowest available energy levels before occupying higher levels

Answer 234

A

Active metals: elements in Groups IA and IIA (Groups 1 and 2)
Very low ionization energies
Do not exist naturally in their neutral forms; they are always found in ionic compounds, minerals or ores
Loss of one or two electrons, from Group 1 and 2, respectively, results in the formation of a stable, filled valence shell

Answer 235

A

Root-mean-square speed is the measure of the speed of particles in a gas which is most convenient for problem solving within the kinetic theory of gases

urms= √(3RT/M)

R: ideal gas constant (8.314 J/K mol)

T: temperature

M: molar mass

Answer 236

A

The changes in enthalpy, entropy, and free energy that occur when a reaction takes place under standard conditions

Standard enthalphy change: ΔH°

Standard entropy change: ΔS°

Standard free energy change: ΔG°

Answer 237

A

Reactants can undergo two different sets of reactions
At lower temperatures (with smaller heat transfer), a kinetic product is formed
At higher temperatures, with larger heat transfer, a thermodynamic product is formed
The kinetic pathway requires less free energy to reach the transition state, but results in a higher-energy (less stable) product
Note: the free energy that must be added for the kinetic pathway is lower than for the thermodynamic pathway; therefore, the kinetic products often form fatster and are sometimes called “fast” products
The free energy of the thermodynamic products is significatly lower than that of the kinetic product; thermodynamic products are therefore associated with greater stability and with a more negative ΔG than kinetic products

Answer 238

A

Is one of two stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other that are non-superposable (not identical), much as one’s left and right hands are the same except for being reversed along one axis (the hands cannot be made to appear identical simply by reorientation).

Answer 239

A

In electronic density, the ideal bond angle is the angle which will be created by the electrons when they are as far away from each other as possible
This is not consistent, as non-bonding pairs are able to exert more repulsion than bonding pairs, because these electrons reside closer to the nucleus
Example: Ammonia and water should have ideal angles of 109.5 degrees
However, because of the non-bonding pairs of electrons, the angles are actually 107 and 104.5 degrees, respectively

Answer 240

A

Electronegative elements positioned near an acidic proton increase acid strength by pulling electron density out of the bond holding the acidic proton; this weakes the proton bonding and facilitates dissociation
Thus, acids that have electronegative elements nearedr to acidic hydrogens are stronger than those that do not

Answer 241

A

A solution that is able to carry current
The electrical conducitivity an aqueous solutions is governed by the presence of ions in the solution

Strong electrolyte: if the solute dissociates completely into its constituent ions

Weak electrolytes: ionizes or hydrolyzes incompletely in aqueous solution, and only some of the solute is dissolved into its ionic constituents

Answer 242

A

When an electron pair is shared between two atoms, typically nonmetals, that have regularly similar values of electronegativity
The degree to which the pair of electrons is shared equally or unequally between the two atoms determines the degree of polarity in the covalent bond; if its euqal, the bond is nonpolar, if it’s not, the bond is polar

Answer 243

A

ΔU = Q - W

ΔU: change in the internal energy of the system

Q: the heat added to the sytem

W: work done by the system

Answer 244

A

Thiocyanate

Answer 245

A

A type of reaction that involves a fuel, usually a hydrocarbon, and an oxidant (normally oxygen)
In the most common form, these reactants form the two products of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O)

Example: CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O

Answer 246

A

A homogenous (the same throughout) mixture of two or more substances that combein to form a single phase, usually the liquid phase

Answer 247

A

Percent composition of an element (by mass), is the percent of a specific compound that is a made up a given element

Percent composition= (Mass of element in formula/molar mass) x 100%

Answer 248

A

Group IA or Group 1
Possess most of the classic physical properties of metals, except that their densities are lwoer than those ot ofter metals
Have only one loosely bound electron in their outershell
Low Z^eff, giving them large atomic radii, low ionization energies, low electron affinities and low electronegativies
Easily lose one electron to become a cation
React readily with non-metals

Answer 249

A

Enthalphy is equivalent to heat under constant pressure

Answer 250

A

P_T= P_A+P_B + P_{C.….}

P_A=X_A/P_T

Where X_A=moles of gas A/total moles of gas

Example: A vessel contains 0.75 mol of nitrogen, 0.2 mol of hydrogen and 0.05 mol of fluoriine at a total pressure of 2.5atm. What is the partial pressure of each gas?

X_N2= 0.75mol/1.00mol

X_H2= 0.2mol/1.00mol

XF2= 0.05mol/1.00mol

P_N2= (0.75) (2.5atm)= 1.875atm

PH2= (0.2) (2.5atm)= 0.5atm

PF₂= (0.05) (2.5atm)= 0.125atm

Answer 251

A

States that if stress is applied to a system, the system shifts to relieve that applied stress

Answer 252

A

If a molecule has several dipoles, but the molecular geometry of the molecule arranges these dipoles such that they cancel out, the molecule will have polar bonds, but be a non-polar molecule, overall
However, in the same molecular arrangement, another molecule may be polar

Example: CCl₄ vs CHCl₃

Answer 253

A

The electrostatic attraction between the valence shell electrons and the nucleus

- For elements in the same period, Zeff increases from left to right

As the positivity of the nucleus increases, the electrons surrounding the nucleus, including those in the valence shell, experience a stronger electrostatic pull

- For elements in the same group, the Zeff stays relatively consistent

Answer 254

A

A system which cannot exchange energy (heat or work) or matter the surroundings
Example: bomb calorimeter

Answer 255

A

Atoms that share an atomic number but have different mass numbers
Atomic number: protons
Mass number: protons + neutrons

Answer 256

A

refers to the shorthand representation of the principal and azimuthal quantum number
The principal quantum number remains a number, but the azimuthal quantum number is designated by a letter:
the l = 0 subshell is called s
the l = 1 subshell is called p
the l = 2 subshell is called d
the l = 3 subshell is called f
Thus, an electron in the shell n = 4 and subshell l = 2 is said to be in the 4d subshell

Answer 257

A

The second quantum number refers to the shape and number of subshells within a given principal energy level (shell)
designated by the letter: l
the range of possible values for l is 0 to (n – 1)

Hint: A way to remember this relationship is that the n-value also tells you the number of possible subshells; if n=1, then there is only 1 subshell (0); if n=2, then there are two subshells, 0 and 1

Answer 258

A

Cr₂O₇^2-

Answer 259

A

L= nh/2π

n: principal quantum number (any positive integer)
h: Planck’s constant
- Because the only variable number is the principal number, the change in angular moment occurs only in discrete amounts

Answer 260

A

ΔG°rxn = -RTlnK_eq

R: ideal gas constant

T: temperature in kelvins

K_eq: equilibrium constant

This applies when the reaction is in equilibrium
However, once the reaction begins, the standard state conditions (specifically 1M solutions) no longer apply

ΔGrxn = ΔG°rxn +RTlnQ = RTln Q/K_eq

Answer 261

A

equal to the number of protons found in an atom of that element

Acts as a unique identifier of that element

Answer 262

A

When a weak acid is placed in aqueous solution, it will only partially dissociate; thus, there will be an equilibrium between the associated and dissociated components

HA (aq) + H₂O (l) ⇔ H₃O⁺ (aq) + A^- (aq)

K_a= [H₃O⁺] [A^-] / [HA]

The smaller the K_a, the weaker the acid and the less it will dissociate
K_a < 1 is considered a “weak acid”

Answer 263

A

The component of the solution that remains in the same phase after mixing
If the two components are already in the same phase (for example, a solution of two liquids), the solvent is the component present in greater quantity)
If they are in the same phase and equal quantity, the component that is more commonly used as a solvent is the solvent

Answer 264

A

mass of solute/mass of solution x 100%

Example: What is the percent composition by mass of a salt water solution if 100g f the solution contains 20g of salt?

mass of solute/mass of solution x 100% = 20g/100g x 100% = 20% NaCl solution

Answer 265

A

K_{a, acid}x K_{b, conjugate base} = K_w = 10^-14

K_{a, base}x K_{b, conjugate acid} = K_w = 10^-14

Thus, if K_a is large, then K_b is small and vice-versa
Example: a strong acid like HCl (K_a approaching infinity) will produce a weak conjugate base like Cl^-
a weak acid or base tends to have conjugates that are also weak

Answer 266

A

Occurs when an atom or ion in a compound is replaced by an atom or ion of another compound

Example: Cu (s) + AgNO₃ (aq) → Ag (s) + CuNO₃ (aq)

Single displacement reactions are often further classified as oxidation-reduction reactions

Answer 267

A

A number of “things” (atoms, ions, molecules) equal to Avogadro’s number: N_A = 6.02 × 10²³

Example: the atomic weight of carbon is 12g/mol which means that the average carbon atom has a mass of 12.0 amu (carbon-12 is far more abundant than carbon-13 or carbon-14), and 6.02 × 10²³ carbon atoms have a combined mass of 12.0 grams.

Answer 268

A

The triple point is the temperature and pressure at which the three phases (gas, liquid, solid) exist in equilibrium

Answer 269

A

Noble gases (Group VIIIA or 18) are the least likely to give up electrons
They have a stable electron configuration and are unwilling to disrupt that stability by giving up an electron
Thus, they have the highest ionization energies

Answer 270

A

Because of the strength of the electrostatic force between the ionic constiuents of the compound, ionic compounds have very high melting and boiling points
Many ionic compounds dissolve readily in water and other polar solvents
Are, in the molten state, good conductors of electricity
In the solid state, form a crystalline lattice, consisting of positive and negative ions

Answer 271

A

If we percieve an object as a particualr color, it is because that color is reflected by the object
if an object absorbds a given color of light and reflects all others, our brain mixes these subtraction frequencies and we perceieve the complementary color of the frequency that was absorbed

Answer 272

A

pH= -log[H+] = log (1/[H+])

Answer 273

A

Reactions in n which the reaction proceeds forward and revese
Usually do not proceed to completion because the products can react to reform the reactants
When in a close system and no reactants or products are added or removed, the system will eventually settle into a state in which the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the revere reaction (dynamic equilibrium)

Answer 274

A

Difference of 0.5 - 1.7 on the Pauling Scale

Answer 275

A

An electron pair donor

Answer 276

A

Exothermic:

When the new interactions are stronger than the orignal ones, the solvation is exothermic, and the process is favored at lower temperatures (think of Le Chatlier’s principle)

Endothermic:

When the new interactions are weaker than the original ones, solvation is endothermic and the process if favored at high temperatures
Most dissolutions are of this type

Answer 277

A

Enthalpy is a state function and is a property of the equilibrium state, so the pathway taken for a process is irrelevant to the change in enthalpy from one equilibrium to another
Hess’s Law: States that enthalphy changes of reactions are additive

Answer 278

A

When the overall strength of the new interactions is approximately equal to the overall strength of the original interactions
In this case, the overall enthalpy change for the dissolution is close to zero
These types of solutions approximate an ideal solution, for which the enthalphy of dissolution is equal to zero

Answer 279

A

The number of shared electron paris between two atoms
A single bond has a bond order of one
A double bond has a bond order of two
A triple bond has a bond order of three

Answer 280

A

periods: rows

groups or families: columns

seven periods, representing the principal quantum numbers n = 1 through n = 7 for the s- and p-block elements; each period is filled sequentially, and each element in a given period has one more proton and one more electron than the element to its left (in their neutral states
Groups contain elements that have the same electronic configuration in their valence shell and share similar chemical properties

Answer 281

A

2n²

n: principle quantum number

Answer 282

A

If -log (n x 10^-m) , we can estimate that the p-value is approximately m - 0.n

Example: if the K_a of an acid is 1.8 x 10^-5, what it its pK_a?

We can estimate that the pKa ≈ 5- 0.18 = 4.82 (actual value= 4.74)

Answer 283

A

No two electrons in a given atom can possess the same set of four quantum numbers (n, l, m_l, m_s)

Answer 284

A

Found

On the left side and in the middle of the periodic table

Include

Include the active metals, the transition metals and the lanthanide and actinide series of elements

Characteristics

Lustrous (shiny) solids (except mercury) under standard conditions
Have high melting points
Have high densities
Have the ability to be deformed without breaking: malleable and ductile
Atomic level: low effective nuclear change, low electronegativity, large atomic radius, small ionic radius, low ionization energy and low electron affinity

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