General Aviation Flashcards
Four forces acting on the aircraft?
Lift, weight, thrust and drag
Newtons third law of motion
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
Where is Supplemental oxygen required?
12,500 to 14,000 MSL a minimum of flight crew after 30 minutes.
14,000 MSL or above, mandatory for all flight crew for the duration of the flight.
15,000 MSL, and above, all occupants must be supplied with aviation grade oxygen.
What are the six different types of turbulence?
Acronym: W. F. M. C. M. C.
W - Wake turbulence
F – Frontal turbulence
M- Mechanical turbulence.
C – Convective turbulence.
M- Mountain wave turbulence
C- Clear air turbulence
Alcohol, consumption, and time frames
No person may act or attempt to act as a crew member of an aircraft:
1) within (8) hours after the consumption of any alcoholic beverage
2) or having an alcohol concentration of .04 or greater.
Three different types of drugs
1) stimulant
2) analgesics
3) depressants 
Timeframe of flying after diving
If you are flying below 8,000ft MSL wait at least 12 hrs (no controlled ascent)
If you are flying above 8,000 ft Msl or had a controlled ascent wait 24 hrs.
Airworthiness directives
Correct unsafe conditions in airframe and engine. Are regulatory and compliance is mandatory.
Two types:
1)emergency
2)less urgent 
May be one time or reoccurring.
Can be found on FAA website.
Metar
Aviation, routine, weather observation
Updated every 55 minutes past the hour
Aerodynamics of auto rotation
25% stall region (Root)
45% driving region. (Middle)
30% driven region. (Tip)
Blade tip is parabolic
Acronyms to know
ASOS - Automated surface observation system.
AWOS – Automated Weather Observation system.
TAF – terminal aerodrome forecast.
ATIS – automatic terminal information system
EFAS - en route Flight advisory service/flight watch.
HIWAS – hazardous in-flight weather advisory service.
Three causes of settling with power
1)Using some or all of the engine power (20% of power or more)
2)Having air speed less than ETL (16–24)
3)Descent rate greater than 300 F p.m.
(Must have all three to get into settling with power.) 
POH, handbook chapters
Chapter 1- definitions
Chapter 2 – limitations
Chapter 3 – emergency procedures
Chapter 4 – normal operations
Chapter 5 – performance
Chapter 6 – weight and balance 
Airmet (WA)
-Airmans meteorological information
-Issued every 6 hours
MODERATE CONDITIONS
Issued every six hours
Hazardous to light aircraft
Includes:
Sustained surface Winds of (30 kts) or greater.
Widespread areas of ceilings, less than 1000 feet and or visability less than 3 miles.
Z -Moderate icing
T-Moderate turbulence
S-Extensive mountain obscuration’s or IFR conditions
Sigmet(WS)
-Significant meteorological information
-Issued every 4 hrs (6 hrs for hurricanes)
SEVERE CONDITIONS
Potentially hazardous to all aircraft.
Sustained winds of 40kts or greater
Severe icing.
Severe turbulence.
Dust, storms, sand, storms, volcanic ash that lower in-flight visibilities to less than 3 miles
Convective Sigmet (WST)
-Valid for 2 hours
-50 kts or greater
Thunderstorm specific (convective weather)
- 3/4inch hail or greater.
- Thunder, lightning, hail, tornadoes
- 50 kts or more
What constitutes a ceiling?
Overcast/broken 
What are the three types of icing?
1) clear
2) rime
3) mixed
Three types of tail rotor Systems
1) conventional or exposed
2) fenestron or enclosed
3) Notar
What are the three types of drag?
1)Profile drag-friction from blades passing through the wind
2) Induced drag-created by the airflow circulation around the rotor blades as it creates a lift
3) Parasite drag-aircraft moving through the air and increases with speed.
Angle of attack
Angle between the airfoils cord line and the relative wind
Two types of airfoils
1) symmetrical.
2) not symmetrical or asymmetrical.
What are the three axis of movement?
1) longitudinal
2) lateral.
3) vertical.
What are the weight limits for the cargo compartment and cabin compartment of the EC 120?
62.5 pounds per square foot max load. 
What are the pitot static instrument?
-Altimeter
-VSI or vertical speed indicator.
-Airspeed indicator
Traffic pattern altitudes
Helicopters – 500 AGL
Airplanes – 1000 AGL
Flying over to observe – 1500 AGL
Engine numbers
Take off power – 504 HP
Max continuous power- 449 HP
Weight – 226.6
Maximum oil volume – 1.294 gallon.
Oil type - mobile Jet oil 254
H120 max altitude limitation
20,000 ft
Types of energy
Potential energy = altitude.
Kinetic energy = airspeed.
Aircraft Inspections, and necessary maintenance to remain airworthy
(A) airworthiness directives
(A) annual
(1) 100 hour
(T) transponder – 24 months
(A) altimeter – 24 months.
(P) pitot static system – 24 months
(E) ELT - every 12 calendar months, half battery life or one hour continuous use.
100 hour inspections are required?
-Anytime the aircraft is used for hire or for flight training.
-The 100 hour mark can only be overflown if relocating the aircraft for maintenance and only by 10 hrs or 10%
Signed off by IA done by A&P
Translating tendency
Lateral movement caused by tail-rotor thrust
Dissymmetry of lift
Differential lift between the advancing and retreating halves of the rotor disc
Translational lift
Improved rotor efficiency resulting from directional flight
The main gearbox is comprised of?
Upper half: epicyclic
Lower : main reduction gear module
Coning is?
The folding up of the blades when lift is greater than the centrifugal force needed to keep blade rigidity
Blade flapping
Compensates for dissymmetry of lift
Three rotor systems
1) Rigid System – feathers only
2) semi rigid – feathers, and flaps
(Underslung system) susceptible to mast bumping.
3) fully articulated system- feathers, flaps, leads and lags.
Slope, landing limitations
Nose up 10°
Nose down 6°
Horizontal to slope 8°
Lead and lag compensates for
Coriolis effect
Gyroscopic precession
Resulting action on a spinning object, when force is applied to the object approximately 90° in the direction of rotation 
H120 engine
Saffron arrius 2F
Main rotor rpm limits
Low – 340
Low alarm -370
Normal operating range – 390-415
High alarm – 420.
High-447
Three types of Weather Briefings
Standard - Good for (6) hours
Abbreviated – good for (2) hours
Outlook -forecasted (6) hours or more out in the future
Airworthiness requirements
A-airworthiness certificate
R- registration certificate
O-operators, manual or POH
W- weight and balance
P-placards
(ADM) aeronautical decision making
A systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances 
Atmospheric circulation
Uneven heating of the Earth surface causes atmosphere to constantly move
Warm air rising, is replaced by cooler air
What are the four forbidden flights?
1) aerobatic flight
2) freezing rain
3) icing conditions
4) intentionally shutting off both Lane one and Lane two of the VEMD in-flight
What are the four stages of hypoxia?
1) indifferent - eyes have a hard time adapting
2) compensatory- breath, pulse, heart rate, and blood pressure all go up.
3) disturbance – systems begin numbness, tingling
4) critical - loss of consciousness 
What affects performance?
Wind
Weight
Density altitude 
Transverse flow affect
Lift differences in the fore and aft portions of the rotor disc in initial forward flight. The front half of the rotor disc has more horizontal flow, whereas the back half has more vertical flow. 
Atmospheres gas composition
78% nitrogen
21% oxygen
1% argon or other gases
HI WAS
Hazardous in flight weather advisory service
The VOR box will have an H above the top right corner. This channel is the Hiwas channel.

The signal is receive only and includes airmets, sigmets and convective sigmets, as well as urgent pi reps 
True altitude
Altitude above mean, sea level
(MSL)
Absolute altitude
Altitude above the surface (AGL)
EC 120 maximum gross weight
3780 
What is pressure altitude?
Altitude corrected for non-standard pressure 
What is density altitude?
Pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature
What are the circulation patterns of pressure systems?
Northern hemisphere
Low pressure systems rotate counterclockwise (Left)
High pressure systems rotate clockwise (right)
Windshear
Any change in wind direction and or speed
Microburst
-Column of sinking air within a thunderstorm
-Worst form of windshear. up to 6000 ft./min..
-Most likely to occur after the passing of a thunderstorm during the dissipating stage 
Squall line
Continuous line of thunderstorms
Greatest hazard to aircraft
Too high to climb over and too wide, to fly around
Standard lapse rate
For every 1000 ft of altitude, you have a 2°C /3.5°F drop in temperature up to 36,000 feet
Hazards associated with thunderstorms
Turbulence
Lightning
Hail
Microbursts
Windshear
Tornadoes
Lightning can strike?
Cloud to cloud
Cloud to ground
Cloud to clean air 
What is a temperature inversion?
Temperature inversion is win the temperature of the atmosphere increases with the increase in altitude
Inversion layers are commonly shallow. Layers of smooth, stable, air close to the ground.
Can happen on cool, clear nights when air is close to the ground
What are the stages of a thunderstorm?
Cumulus stage -begins lifting action. Air rises to its dewpoint, water vapor, condenses into small droplets, strong, updrafts, allow building.
Mature stage - when rain begins to fall.
Dissipating stage - strong downdrafts as storm begins to weaken.
How far should we avoid thunderstorms by?
20 nautical miles
What are the three things that affect air density?
Humidity
Altitude
Temperature
What are airworthiness directives?
Airworthiness directives are used to correct unsafe conditions in aircraft frame and engine
A. T. I. S.
Automatic terminal information system
Only a towered airport
Displays the same information as ASOS and AWOS but further offers active runway in use 
Dynamic roll over
Need three things:
1) pivot point
2) thrust
3) rolling moment
To recover: Lower collective immediately removing thrust.
Cold front
When cold air replaces warm air
Warm front
When warm air replaces cold air
Stationary front
When neither air mass is moving
Occluded front
When warm and cold fronts merge
What is a front?
Boundary between two air masses with different characteristics.
With the passing of a front temperature, pressure and wind direction will change
Starting limitations
After three consecutive attempts, must wait 30 minutes
Squawk codes
7500 – aircraft hijacking
7600 – lost communications
7700 – aircraft emergency
What are the limits on weight with the EC 120?
Maxximum – 3780
Minimum – 2284
What are basic VFR conditions?
Three statute miles invisibility, and 1000 foot ceilings 
Winds on a metar or reported as?
True north
What are the two types of engines?
Reciprocating
Turbine 
Temperature limits for the EC 120
Maxximum – 122°F
Minimum – -22°F
Causes of retreating blade stall
High forward airspeed
High gross weight
High bank angle
High density altitude
Turbulence
Low rotor, RPM
What are the two types of fatigue?
Acute
Chronic
What are the four types of hypoxia?
HYPOXIC-insufficient oxygen available to the lungs. High altitude flying, drowning, suffocating
HYPEMIC-blood, not able to carry oxygen to the cells in the body.
Severe bleeding
Anemia
Carbon monoxide poisoning
HISTOTOXIC-poor use of oxygen because of toxins, such as alcohol or drugs.
STAGNANT-restricted blood flow
Arm or leg going to sleep.
Corrective action for hypoxia
1) Reduce altitude below 10,000 ft
2) use supplemental oxygen
Hyperventilation
Is the lack of carbon dioxide in the body.
Symptoms :
Muscle spasms
Clammy or pale appearance
Headache
Corrective action :
breathing into a paper bag
Talking aloud
Hypoxia
lack of oxygen for the body
Required equipment (Day VFR)
T tachometer
O oil pressure
M manifold pressure
A altimeter
T temp gauge (liquid cooled)
O oil temp (air cooled)
F fuel gauge
L landing gear indicator
A airspeed indicator
M magnetic compass
E elt (for commercial only)
S seatbelts
Restrictions for flight after Scuba Diving
If you are flying below 8,000ft MSL wait at least 12 hrs (no controlled ascent)
If you are flying above 8,000 ft Msl or had a controlled ascent wait 24 hrs.
Required equipment for night operation

F FUSES
L LANDING LIGHT IF FOR HIRE
A anticollision lights
P position light
S source of electricity.
EFAS
enroute flight advisory service
(FLIGHT WATCH)
122.0
0600-2200 local time
Guaranteed reception about 5000 AGL 
LTE
Loss of tail rotor effectiveness
An unanticipated uncomanded yaw towards the advancing blade, which does not subside on its own record
Happens at speeds of less than 30 kts
I) main rotor disk interference
2) weather cocking
3) tail rotor vortex ring state
Contributing factors of settling with power
-Steep approaches with air speed near zero
-Loss of ETL, high power with large vortices
-Approaches with a tailwind
-Hovering, OGE
TFR
TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS
E- emergency air traffic rules
D-disaster, relief
P-president, flight within close proximity
S-space flight, close proximity
D- aerial demonstration, i.e. golden knights
P- pressure, High barometric pressure above 31 inches mercury
S- sporting events 30k people or more w/i 3sm and 2500agl
NAVIGATIONAL ERRORS
M. Magnetic dip-dip in Compass when close to the poles.
O. Oscillations-vibrations in the aircraft
N. North turning errors.
A. Acceleration errors- Quick acceleration turns north, quick deceleration turn south on east/west heading
V. Variation- difference between True North and magnetic north.
D. Deviation - Electrical interference
Getting out of settling with power
Forward cyclic
Reduce collective
Vouchard method -increase collective to climb power.
right pedal keep no straight
apply left cyclic 10 to 20° bank
NTSB immediate notification
-After an accident
-After an incident
-When an aircraft is overdue, and believed to have been in a crash
-Damage to property exceeding $25,000
NTSB incident
Fire-in flight
Flight-control failure
Collision
Crew member- can’t perform duties
Blades-damaged require replacement
NTSB ACCIDENT
FATAL
-injury resulting in death within 30 days
SERIOUS INJURY
-Injury requiring hospitalization for more than 48 hours within seven days of date of injury
-Any fracture other than fingers, nose and toes
-Causes muscle nerve tendon damage or hemorrhaging
-Damage to any organ
-2nd or 3rd degree burns, or any burn greater than 5% of the body
SUBSTANTIAL DAMAGE
Damage or failure, which affects -structural strength
-Performance
-Flight characteristics
Normally resulting in major repair or replacement 
IGE
(In ground effect)
Increased efficiency of the rotor disk caused by interference of the airflow when near the surface 
NTSB reports
10 days to file an accident report
7 days to file on missing or over due aircraft
Upon request of an authorized representative
Each crew member must attach a supplement settling for the facts, conditions and circumstances relating to the accident
NTSB preservation of wreckage
May only be moved-
-To remove injured or free victims
-To protect the public from injury
-To protect the scene from further damage
Layers of the atmosphere
Thermosphere-350miles and up
Mesosphere - 160k up to 280k
Stratosphere- 48k up to 160k
Troposphere - up to 20 K over the poles / up to 48,000 over the equatorial regions.
Atmosphere composition
78% nitrogen
21% oxygen
1% argon, and other gases 
Wind operations, above 30 kts
Park into the wind
keeping the blade in the 12 o’clock position with rotor Brake applied.
Start up
Slight forward cyclic before engaging starter
Accelerate engine to 320 RPM as quickly as possible within T4 and torque limits 
TAF
Terminal aerodrome forecast
-24/30 hrs
-Forecasted weather
-Issued four times a day
0000 Zulu, 0600 Zulu, 1200 Zulu, 1800 Zulu
Angle of the incidence
-Angle between the cord line and the rotor disc
- Also known as blade pitch angle
Total pressure is a sum of what two pressures?
Dynamic P + Static P = Total pressure
-As Dynamic pressure (velocity) increases Static P decreases.
-As Dynamic pressure decreases, static pressure increases.
Advisory Circulars
Info of interest to pilots
Resolve general misunderstandings
Found on FAA website
Part 20- aircraft
Part 60- airmen
Part 70- airspace
Reserve fuel requirements
Must have enough fuel reserve for 20 minutes of flight beyond your destination
Transponder deviation
For operation of an aircraft with operating transponder, but without Mode C capability, the request can be made at anytime
For operation of an aircraft with inoperative transponder and to a destination where repairs can be made, the request can be made at any time
For operation of an aircraft that is not equipped with a transponder. The request must be made at least one hour out.
Bernoulli’s principle
Daniel Bernoulli was a Swiss physicist
The discovery of Bernoulli’s principle led to the understanding of pressure differences acting on an airfoil. He discovered this principle and explained the theory by demonstrating it with the use of a Venturi.
An increase in velocity correlates with a decrease in pressure. So when dynamic pressure is increased, static pressure is decreased and vise versa.
Right of way rules
B. BALOON
G. GLIDER
A. Airship
A. Airplane
R. Rotorcraft.
Head on: each will give way to the right
Converging : aircraft to the right has the right away
Overtaking : if overtaking an aircraft, you must pass on the right
Night vision
Nine operations are best when using off-center viewing. Rods are used predominantly for nighttime viewing. Rods are more sensitive to light than cones. Cones are concentrated near the fovea. Rods are responsible for most peripheral vision.
Visual scanning
25% of the time should be on instruments, 75% of the time should be viewing outside the aircraft. 
Scanning should be in 10° increments from left to right and top to bottom 
Rod cells
Used in periods of low, light and darkness. Produces rhodopsin. 
Cone cells
Used in periods of bright light
Identifies colors and sharp, visual acuity, and are concentrated in the fovea
Produces Iodopsin
Concentration of cone cells in the fovea can create a night Blindspot in the center of the field of vision 
Myopia
Nearsightedness
Caused by refractive errors in the lens which focuses objects in front of the retinal plane 
Hyperopia
Farsightedness
Caused by refractive errors where the focal point of the eye is behind the retinal plane
Where is ADSB – out required?
Automatic dependent surveillance broadcast
ADAPT -ADSB deviation authorization preflight tool
As of 1/1/2020
-class A, B, C airspace
-In and above B, C up to 10,000 feet MSL
-W/I 30NM of a class B (mode c veil)
-Class E at or above 10,000 feet MSL excluding air space at and blew 2500 feet AGL
-Class E over the Gulf of Mexico at or above 3000 feet MSL and W/I 12 NM of the coastline
-ADAPT
Used to get clearance to fly were ADSB-out is required. If you don’t have it, aircraft must have mode C with a working transponder. 
3 types of LTE
1) main rotor disc interference
2) tail rotor vortex ring state
3) weather cocking
H-120 Fuel system
Max fuel capacity 108.5
Max Useable fuel 107.3
2- crashworthy fuel bladders
(3 fuel pumps)
2- low pressure
1- high pressure
Types of fog
A-Advection fog
Low layer of warm, moist air moves over a cool surface
S-Steam fog
Cold, dry air moves over comparatively warm waters
P-precipitation induced fog-
Forms as warm precipitation falls through cooler air
U-Upslope fog
Form as moist stable air is forced up a sloping landmass
R-Radiant fog
Forms in low lying areas with fairly flat surfaces on clear, calm humid nights
Cell types
Polar cells- near the poles (cold air)
Ferrel cells-warm air
Hadley cells- over the equator(hot air)
Clouds
Stratus type clouds and fog form up to 6500 agl. Consist mostly of water
Alto type clouds. Consist of super cooled water and ice crystals. 6500 -20,000 agl
Cirrus type clouds. Made up of ice crystals. 20,000 agl and above
Forms in stable air.
Special flight permit
For aircraft that may not meet airworthiness requirements, but capable of safe flight
F- flight testing
E-evacuation from impending danger
D-delivery or export
G-operating in excess of max gross weight
R-repairs
D-demonstration flight
Settling with power
When an aircraft settles in its own downwash.
Can sink greater than 6000 ft./min.
Signs of settling with power
Noise
Sloppy controls
Vibration
High sink rate develops and worsens with up collective
VSI shows high descent rate
Equalizing pressure in the ears by pinching the nose off, closing the mouth and exhaling
Valsalva method
Airport Beacon Lighting
Grn/Wht - Public access airport
Grn/Wht/Wht - Military Airport
Grn/Wht/Ylw - Heloport landing
Wht/Ylw - Water landing area
Beacon Operation from sunset to sunrise or during IFR conditions.
Logging of night flights and night currency training.
Position lighting needs to be on starting at sunset till sunrise.
We may log night flight hours starting at end of evening civil twilight through till beginning morning civil twilight.
Twilight starts at sunset and runs for 45 mins when the sun is 6 degrees below the horizon.
Night currency can be logged starting at 1 hour after sunset and runs through till 1 hour before sunrise.
Pilots wanting to carry passengers must have had 3 take offs and landings w/i the preceding 90 days.
Senses used for orientation
Vestibular- organs of the inner ear. Sense of how we balance.
Visual-Sense based off of what is seen
Postural-Nerves in the joint, muscles and skin
Open field myopia
Eye focusing on objects only a few feet outside of the aircraft.
Basic Med
1.)Need to have a valid US DL
2.)Have held a medical after 6/14/2006
3.)Get a physical using FAA’s Comprehensive Medical Exam checklist
4.) Complete basic med education course.
-must take education course every 24 months
-must get physical every 48 months
Aircraft requirements flying under basic med
-Aircraft authorized under fed law -not rated to carry more than 6 occupants.
-Does not have a weighted take off rating greater than 6,000 lbs
-can’t exceed 250 kts
-under 18,000msl
Operating requirements under Basic Med.
-May not carry more than 5 passengers
-Operates under IFR/VFR within the US, at less than 18,000 msl. May not exceed 250 kts
- Not operated for compensation or hire.
Flight Review
Every 2 years-
Minimum 1 hour ground training
Minimum 1 hour flight training
Aircraft registration and airworthiness certs.
-Airworthiness certificates remains valid as long as aircraft maintenance and inspections are kept up.
-Registration certificates expire every 3 years after it was registered, last renewed.
Approach and exit on a slope
Always approach and exit on the lower side of the aircraft.
Medical Certificates
ATP
UNDER 40 - 12 months
OVER 40 - 6 months
1st CLASS
COMMERCIAL
UNDER 40 - 12 months
OVER 40 - 12 months
PRIVATE
UNDER 40 - 60 months
OVER 40 - 24 months
2nd CLASS
COMMERCIAL
UNDER 40 - 12 months
OVER 40 - 12 months
PRIVATE
UNDER 40 - 60 months
Over 40. - 24 months
3rd CLASS
UNDER 40 - 60 months
Over 40. - 24 months
Power Limitations
-Max airspeed limited to VY (65kts) if Tq is in takeoff rating range.
-5 mins use if T4 and/or Ng are in takeoff rating range.
- use of P2 heat is forbidden if Ng and/or T4 are in takeoff rating range.
Special disorientation
Misleading information being sent to the brain from sensory organ such at visual, vestibular and postural senses.
