general Flashcards
What is the most important consideration in child custody evaluations?
The best interest of the child
extinction burst
In operant conditioning, an increase in the behavior from which reinforcement is being withdrawn
spontaneous recovery
In classical conditioning, the reappearance of the conditioned response during extinction trials
What is the most common cause of mental retardation?
Problems during the embryonic stage of fetal development (conception to 8 weeks). These account for 30% of cases of retardation and can be attributed to chromosomal abnormalities (e.g. Down’s syndrome) and/or environmental factors (e.g. maternal drinking or infection)
adverse impact
A term describing discriminatory selection processes, defined as a minority hiring rate of < 80% of the majority hiring rate
two-factor theory
a. k.a. Motivation-Hygiene Theory, a.k.a. dual-factor theory. Created by Frederick Herzberg, based on Maslow’s theory. The idea that work satisfaction is derived from:
1. high-level factors for satisfaction (motivators/satisfiers) - e.g. achievement, opportunity, etc. and
2. low-level factors for dissatisfaction (hygiene factors/ dissatisfiers) - e.g. pay, working conditions, etc.
These are not considered to lie on the same scale, so you could be high or low in both.
ERG theory
By Clayton Alderfer. Modification of Maslow’s theory. Describes 3 non-hierarchical needs – existence (physiological and safety), relatedness (social/external), growth (self-actualization/internal) – that contribute to work satisfaction.
frustration-regression principle
Part of ERG theory. Says that if a higher-level need is frustrated (e.g. desire for self-actualization), the person will regress to a lower-level need (e.g. socializing w/coworkers)
overjustification hypothesis
If you’re given a reward for something you like doing, you’ll start liking it less. Relates to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Criterion-based score (a.k.a. referenced score)
Calculated in relation to an external criterion – e.g. percentage (the score) of a test (the criterion)
Norm-referenced score
Calculated in relation to other test-takers; unrelated to how much of a criterion was mastered. E.g. percentile, standard score, IQ score.
Beck’s depressive triad of cognitive distortions
negative view of self (internal), world (global), and future (stable)
Hypnogogic
Occurring when falling asleep
Hypnopompic
Occurring when waking up
Iatrogenic
Caused by a medical or psychological treatment
Concordance rate for bipolar disorder between monozygotic twins
80% (dizygotic: 20-25%)
Concordance rate for MDD between monozygotic twins
55-60% (dizygotic: 20%)
Concordance rate for schizophrenia between monozygotic twins
50% (dizygotic:10-15%)
When in development does handedness develop?
Preference emerges at age 2; handedness firmly established at age 7-8. This corresponds with increased brain specialization, decreased plasticity.
Interval recording
Recording presence/absence of a behavior during pre-specified time intervals. Behavior is quantified in terms of percentage/ratio of time engaged in. Helpful when a behavior doesn’t have a distinct beginning/end
Event recording
Tallying the number of discrete times a behavior occurs.
Content sampling error (a.k.a. item sampling error)
Error that reduces test reliability. Results from selecting test items that inadequately cover the content area that the test is supposed to evaluate
Howard’s meta-analytic studies of psychotherapy outcome
Found that:
- By end of session 8, 50% patients improve
- By end of 6 months, 75% improve
Additive scoring
Scores of each subscale contribute to the total score (or scores of each individual person contribute to the outcome). Higher scores offset lower scores.
Compensatory scoring
Subscale scores (or individuals’ scores) are averaged together. Higher scores compensate for lower scores.
Conjunctive scoring
A.k.a. multiple cutoff procedure. Subscale scores are considered individually (and might each need to be above some cutoff). (Or, all individuals in a group might need to do well to achieve a rewarding outcome.)
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
- physiological
- safety
- belonging and love (social needs)
- esteem
- self-actualization
Akathisia
Most common side effect of neuroleptics. Includes restlessness, especially in legs.
Dystonia
A medication side effect. Acute contractions of tongue, face, neck; twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal fixed postures.
Parkinsonism
A medication side effect. Stiffness, “mask-like face”, shuffling gait, drooling, tremors
Akinesia
A medication side effect; also a description of Parkinson’s symptoms. Apathy, decreased spontaneous gestures, decreased voluntary movement.
Demographic characteristics most highly correlated with suicide
White, male, middle to high SES. Women are more likely to attempt suicide, but men are more likely to die by suicide because they use more lethal means. Black people have the lowest suicide rates.
Parietal lobe
Processes somatosensory input – e.g. light touch, pain, temperature, proprioception. Damage results in left-right confusion, problems performing motor activities
Occipital lobe
Includes primary visual cortex.
Temporal lobe
Includes primary auditory cortex, amygdala (“temper, temper”), hypothalamus
Equity theory
Posits that inequity between your own input/outcome and another person’s leads to motivation to change performance to make things more fair. If the situation is inequitable, the person may try to increase outcome (e.g. salary) or decrease input (e.g. amount of work) to match.
Rational economic model of decision-making (a.k.a. classical decision theory)
Gathering all relevant information, considering all possible solutions, and choosing the best.
Administrative model of decision making (a.k.a. behavioral decision theory, a.k.a. bounded rationality model)
Based on work of Herbert Simon. Recognizes real-world limitations on decision-making. Uses a “satisficing” style and involves choosing first adequate possibility.
Confidentiality rules of employee EAP programs
Employee’s supervisor is entitled to know about EAP therapy attendance, but not content of sessions.
Quality assurance
A workplace assessment of availability, adequacy, and appropriateness of services.
Utilization review
A workplace assessment of costs and conservation of resources
Are psychologists mandated to report their health status (e.g. HIV) to the licensing board?
No
Psychoanalytic explanation of mania
Defense against depression
Beta waves
Occur in alert states
Alpha waves
Occur during relaxation, eyes closed
Delta waves
Occur during deep sleep (sleep stages 3 & 4)
Theta waves
Occur as a person first drifts into sleep (stage 1)
Response of avoidant baby in Strange Situation task
Avoid and/or ignore the mom when she comes back into the room. No crying or clinging to mom before or after she leaves.
Broca’s area
In left frontal lobe, on inferior frontal gyrus. Controls muscles used for speech production and fluency.
Wernicke’s area
In temporal lobes. Associated with speech comprehension.
function of basal ganglia
initiation and control of movement; learning; includes striatum
functions of hypothalamus
part of limbic system; regulates ANS activity; sleep-wake (Circadian) cycle, body temperature, thirst, hunger
forebrain (a.k.a. prosencephalon)
main part of brain; includes telencephalon (occipital, parietal, frontal, temporal) and diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, pineal gland)
midbrain (a.k.a. mesencephalon)
top of brainstem, connects forebrain to hindbrain; regulates movement, processes, auditory/visual signals; includes tectum, cerebral peducle, substantia nigra
hindbrain (a.k.a. rhombencephalon)
contains pons, cerebellum, medulla oblongata
structural family therapy (Salvador Minuchin)
Focuses on hierarchies, boundaries, subsystems, enmeshment, disengagement. Aims to reorganize structures to remove dysfunctional elements – e.g. by restructuring parents in a coalition against their child, prohibiting kids from talking about symptomatic behavior with parents.
Freud’s stages of psychosexual development
- oral (birth-1 year): mouth
- anal (1-3 years): peeing and pooping
- phallic (3-6 years): genitalia; Oedipus/Electra complex
- latency (6-puberty); dormant sexual feelings
- genital (puberty-death): sexual interests mature
Erikson’s developmental stages
- trust vs mistrust (birth-1 year)
- autonomy vs shame/doubt (1-3 years): “me do it”
- initiative vs guilt (3-6 years): initiating and achieving goals
- industry vs inferiority (6-12 years): pride in schoolwork/sport/family life
- identity vs role confusion (12-18 years): “who am I?”
- intimacy vs isolation (20s through early 40s)
- generativity vs stagnation (40s-60s): finding life’s work, helping others
- integrity vs despair (60s-death): satisfaction when looking back at life
Larry P v. Riles
argued that IQ tests in schools resulted in minority students being placed disproportionately in special-ed classes
Reactance
When someone becomes more resistant to social influence in response to feeling pressured by the influencer
Resistance
Refusing to take a suggestion
Retroflection
A boundary disturbance in Gestalt therapy; taking what you want to do to someone else and doing it to yourself
Job evaluation
Conducted to determine financial worth of a job. Different from a performance evaluation or job analysis.
Job analysis
Performed to determine job tasks and training requirements. Used to match candidates with jobs, determine salary, establish safety standards.
Kluver-Bucy syndrome
Happes as a result of amygdala damage. Hypoemotionality, agnosia, increased docility, hypersexuality, hyperphagia
Bayes Theorem
describes statistical probability of certain events given likelihood of other events
BARS
Behaviorally anchored rating scale. An absolute measure of performance, with behavioral anchors based on critical incidents
Which type of therapy is best known for doing dreamwork?
Gestalt therapy. The therapist has the pt talk from the POV of each object in the dream.
Stimulus generalization
A classical conditioning term. Generalizing from CS to similar but neutral stimuli. E.g. if afraid of dogs, also becoming afraid of cats.
Response generalization
An operant conditioning term. Doing a similar behavior to one that was previously reinforced.
implosive therapy
similar to imaginal flooding; a type of imaginal exposure in which the person imagines an exaggerated version of the anxiety-provoking stimulus. Based on classical extinction.
systematic desensitization
a.k.a. reciprocal inhibition (Wolpe). Gradual exposure (imaginal or in vivo) while using relaxation techniques. Does not arouse high levels of anxiety.
Counterconditioning
Conditioning to replace an undesired response with a more desired one
Piaget’s developmental stages
- sensorimotor (birth-2 years) - learning is based on physical experience, trial & error
- preoperational (2-7 years) - egocentricity, symbolic thinking (e.g. language); difficulty with idea of constancy; animism, magical thinking
- concrete operational (7-11 years) - inductive logic; understanding of conservation
- formal operational (12 and up) - abstract concepts, hypotheses based on past experience
standard error of the estimate
A measure of the accuracy of predictions made with a regression line.
Formula: std err est = SD(sqrt((1-r)^2)), where SD is the standard deviation of the criterion and r is the validity coefficient. The larger the variance in criterion scores, the greater the variance in error; the higher the validity coefficient (i.e. the better the test is at predicting criterion outcome), the smaller the error.
validity coefficient
Magnitude of correlation between a test and a criterion variable. Represents validity of a test.
Can someone with a mixed episode be diagnosed with bipolar I?
Yes
Foods to avoid when taking MAOI
Foods high in tyramine (can cause hypertension/stroke): alcohol, fava/broad beans, aged cheese, liver, smoked meat; foods to limit: soy sauce, avocado, banana, eggplant, spinach, tomato, yogurt
base rate (in the context of I/O)
the rate of hiring good employees without a predictor test
selection ratio
the ratio of # of job openings to # of applicants
incremental validity
proportion of improvement in success rate, relative to base rate, due to adding a predictor test
Taylor-Russell tables
Used to determine the value of a predictor test for hiring decisions based on the selection ratio and base rate. Incremental validity of a test is best when base rate is moderate (~.5), selection ratio is low (~.1), and validity coefficient is high.
Balance Theory
Says that a situation with 2 people and 1 object is out of balance when there are two positive links and one negative, which leads to change (e.g. Andrea likes David, Andrea likes skiing, David doesn’t like skiing)
M’Naughton Rule
Relates to the insanity defense. In this case, the insanity defense was used to defend someone w/schizophrenia who killed England’s prime minister’s secretary
An active, confrontational, persuasive style is characteristic of which type of therapy?
Ellis’s Rational Emotive Therapy
Item Response Theory (a.k.a. Latent Trait Theory)
Guides the design/scoring/analysis of questionnaires. Doesn’t assume that all test items are equally easy/hard. Draws connections between an item, the person taking the test, and the latent trait being measured. The theoretical basis of computer adaptive assessment.
Under what circumstances is punishment most effective?
When administered early in the behavior sequence, at maximum intensity from the beginning, and consistently
halo effect
when ratings (either negative or positive) on one dimension affect ratings of the same person on other dimensions
contrast effect
when ratings of one person are affected by ratings of previous people
leniency bias
when rater rates everyone well
Which perceived characteristics of a manager are most likely to lead workers to do what they say?
being skilled/knowledgeable (expert power) and being likable/easy to identify with (referent power)
DRO
differential reinforcement of other behaviors. Extinction of an undesired behavior while reinforcing a desired behavior
holophrasic speech
Using single words to express something. Happens from 12-18 months.
telegraphic speech
Using two-word phrases. Happens around 18-24 months.
Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
Relates to a leader’s rating of a least preferred coworker (LPC). Low-LPC leaders are task-oriented and do best when they have either low or high situational control. High-LPC leaders are relationship-oriented and do best when they have moderate situational control.
Gertsmann’s syndrome
Caused by lesions to dominant parietal lobe. Characterized by agraphia, acalculia, right-left disorientation, finger agnosia
Theory X
A theory of work productivity positing that workers are lazy and need external reinforcement to do their work.
Theory Y
A theory of work productivity positing that workers are hard-working, creative, and seek challenges
Theory Z
A theory of work productivity positing that workers should be part of a company for life, promoted slowly, and group decision-making is important for companies
self-serving bias
attribution of your successes to your disposition and your failures to circumstance
actor-observer bias
attribution of one’s own actions to the situation but others’ actions to disposition
fundamental attribution error
attribution of others’ behavior to disposition and underplaying situational factors
Rett’s disorder
A genetic disorder seen only in females. Symptoms: sudden head growth deceleration, loss of hand skills followed by stereotyped hand movements, loss of social engagement, impaired language development, psychomotor retardation
What is the relationship between job satisfaction and 1) age, 2) gender, 3) race, and 4) type of work?
1) job satisfaction increases with age
2) no difference in job satisfaction between men and women
3) job satisfaction is greater among white vs minority people
3) job satisfaction is greater at higher occupational levels and lower in routine work (e.g. assembly lines)
QWL programs
a.k.a. quality of work-life programs. Programs meant to improve working life, in which workers meet regularly in teams to discuss issues in their purview.
discriminant analysis
a statistical test designed to predict a categorical DV from a set of continuous IVs (e.g. predicting who will pass the EPPP based on study time, age, and GPA)
Under what circumstances is it easiest to persuade someone?
The person has moderate self-esteem and there is a moderate discrepancy between their attitude and the message
When trying to persuade someone, under what circumstances should you present both sides of the argument vs only one side?
Present both sides if the person is initially opposed, intelligent, and well-informed. Present one side if the person is initially in favor, stupid, and poorly informed.
APA rules for record retention
Keep full record for 3 years after finishing treatment, then keep either summary or full record for another 12 years (at least 15 years total)
Cluster analysis
Used to derive subgroups from a cluster of DVs
Fetal alcohol syndrome
Has permanent effects: physical deformities, delayed motor development, decreased intelligence
proactive inhibition
When old knowledge interferes with learning of new knowledge
retroactive inhibition
When new knowledge interferes with retrieval of old knowledge
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories after an amnesia-causing event
retrograde amnesia
inability to retrieve old memories
Premack Principle
a.k.a. probability-differential theory. The opportunity to do a high-probability behavior (e.g. eating candy, playing pinball) will reinforce a low-probability behavior (e.g. doing homework)
cluster sampling
randomly selecting naturally-occurring groups/samples (e.g. schools in a district, counties in a state). Often all the subjects within that cluster are sampled, but it can also be a random sampling of subjects within the cluster.
stratified random sampling
dividing the population into homogeneous groups, then randomly sampling within each
gate control theory
By Melzack & Wall. Pain is governed by a neurochemical “gate” that is either open or closed. Positive feelings/thoughts close the gate and negative ones open it.
What is the factor most strongly associated with suicide?
Hopelessness
Jung vs. Freud
In contrast to Freud, Jung didn’t think all personality development was based on sex drives; had a more positive view of human nature; and emphasized personality and spiritual development in adulthood (not just childhood development)
Ziegarnik effect
tendency to remember partially finished tasks better than completed ones
Barnum effect
tendency to identify with vague descriptions of themselves, e.g. a horoscope
Common medication for OCD
andidepressants - e.g. clomipramine (Anafranil - a triciclyic) or fluoxetine (Prozac - SSRI)
ethical rule regarding multiple relationship
they’re discouraged but sometimes unavoidable. They’re allowed as long as therapeutic objectivity isn’t compromised, and there is no exploitation of the patient.
power test (in psychoed testing)
a test of the highest level a subject can achieve. no time restrictions, liberal limits
What is the best therapy for specific phobias (agoraphobia, etc)?
Flooding – i.e. exposure with response prevention. Based on the principle of classical extinction.
Cognitive processing in older vs. younger adults
Older adults:
- Do worse than younger adults on higher-order cognitive processes (problem-solving, reasoning, etc) in lab situations, but as well or better when measured in terms of real-world function.
- Do well on simple attention tasks but have more trouble with complex ones. - Are poorer at learning and retrieving new info from long-term memory.
primary reinforcer
Things that are innately reinforcing across ages and cultures, e.g. food
secondary reinforcer
Something that’s not innately reinforcing but acquires reinforcing value through experience. E.g. positive feedback
generalized conditioned reinforcer
Something that has reinforcing value because it provides access to other reinforcers, e.g. money/tokens
discriminative stimulus
A stimulus in the presence of which a certain behavior will be reinforced – e.g. if you get a point for clicking button A but not B, button A would be a discriminative stimulus
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
Based on Piaget’s ideas.
- preconventional (age 4-10)
1a. obedience and punishment
1b. self-interest (“what’s in it for me?”) - conventional (age 10-13)
2a. interpersonal accord and conformity (“good boy”/”good girl”)
2b. authority and social-order maintaining - post-conventional (early adolescence to adulthood)
3a. social contract (mutual benefit, reciprocity)
3b. universal ethical principles
Symptoms of alcohol withdrawal
anxiety, shaking hands, headache, vomiting, sweating; hallucinations/delusions, seizures, fever, racing heart
Symptoms of benzodiazepine (e.g. valium) withdrawal
rebound anxiety/insomnia, irritability, headaches, sensory distortions, agitation, high blood pressure, seizures, hallucinations; can be fatal if done abruptly
Symptoms of opiate (heroin, morphine, codeine, oxycodone) withdrawal
agitation, anxiety, insomnia, sweating; diarrhea, vomiting; very unpleasant but not life-threatening
flex-time
employees choose their hours as long as it includes some common set of hours. Associated with better morale, less absenteeism/tardiness
Rehm’s self-control model of depression
Integrates cognitive and behavioral principles. Depression results from negative self-eval, lack of self-reinforcement, too much self-punishment. Treatment addresses self-monitoring, self-eval, self-control skills, change in thoughts & behaviors
Kohut’s self psychology
A psychoanalytic approach. Refers to selfobject needs (dependence on other people), including mirroring, idealization, twinship. Says that narcissism stems from lack of parental empathy, so therapist must provide empathy.
social buffering hypothesis
perceived social support (as opposed to actual social support) buffers against depression and suicide
T-score
a standardized score; mean = 50, SD = 10
z-score
a standardized score representing the number of standard deviations from the mean a data point is; mean = 0, SD = 1. range= -3 to 3.
relationship between z-score and percentile
z = 0: 50th percentile z = 1: 84th percentile z = 2: 98th percentile
z = -1 to 1: 68% of sample z = -2 to 2: 95% of sample
Lithium side effects
gastric distress, weight gain, tremor, fatigue, mild cognitive impairment
tricyclic medication
Include Elavil, imipramine, clomipramine, amitriptyline. Best for “classic” depression (bodily symptoms, worse in AM, short duration/acute onset, moderate severity). Side effects include sedation, weight gain, anticholinergic effects (dry mouth, constipation, blurred vision, urinary retention)
SSRI medication
Include fluoxetine (Prozac), sertraline (Zoloft), paroxetine (Paxil). Best for moderate to severe depression. Fewer side effects than tricyclics, lower risk for fatal overdose. Side effects include agitation, insomnia, decreased libido, headache, nausea
primary prevention
intervention for non-affected group to prevent the problem from happening at all
secondary prevention
early intervention to prevent a problem from getting worse
tertiary prevention
intervention to reduce recurrence or residual effects of problems
social referencing
when infants use affective cues (e.g. from mom) for guidance in uncertain situations. Begins around 1 year of age
Around what age do embarrassment, empathy, and envy develop?
Around age 2
Alzheimer’s involves a decrease in which neurotransmitter?
acetylcholine
covert sensitization
imaginal aversive conditioning. Used for “deviant” behaviors: smoking, fetishes, etc.
empirical criterion keying
A method of developing personality tests. A set of criteria are given to people with and without a known characteristic (“criterion groups”), and only items that distinguish between groups are retained.
Tests that were developed using empirical criterion keying
MMPI, Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory; Kuder Occupational Interest Survey.
NOT used for MCMI (Millon)
Atkinson’s theory of achievement motivation (NAch)
Success depends on:
- task difficulty - intermediate
- motive/need to achieve - high; associated with independence, challenge-seeking, pride in accomplishments
- need to avoid failure - high
Under what circumstances is a group leader most likely to deviate from group norms?
When the leader is secure in their position
criterion contamination
when there is a spuriously high correlation between predictor and criterion (validity coefficient) because of a rater’s prior knowledge of the predictor ratings
Symptoms of amphetamine withdrawal
dysphoria, psychomotor retardation, increased appetite
At what value does an ANOVA F-ratio start becoming significant?
2.0
parallel process
when a therapist acts toward a supervisor like a patient has acted toward the therapist
Deci’s studies of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
Found that, in contrast to the overjustification effect, extrinsic rewards can enhance intrinsic motivation if used as feedback about performance (e.g. getting a raise for good work) rather than used to control performance
K scale of MMPI
measures guardedness/defensiveness; corrects for these things on some clinical scales. Very low K score is associated with acute psychological distress (d)
F scale of MMPI
reflects infrequently endorsed items; can mean either malingering or random response. If too high, it invalidates the entire test.
L scale of the MMPI
The Lie (“faking good”) scale. Intended to catch people lying, in denial about their symptoms, or with low insight. Items asked about things that sound good, but are rarely actually endorsed by most people.
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
Stimulus –> bodily reaction –> emotion (I’m running, so I must be scared)
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
Stimulus –> thalamus –> simultaneous bodily reaction and emotion. Emotion doesn’t rely on bodily reaction.
Schacter’s Theory of Emotion
A.k.a. two-factor theory of emotion. Stimulus –> bodily reaction + cognitive labeling of the reaction –> emotion. E.g. crying at a wedding = happy, crying at a funeral = sad
Who does the APA ethics code apply to?
Officially only members of the APA. However, licensing boards often follow APA ethics codes.
group polarization
When a group discusses a topic, the views discussed are more extreme and in the same direction as the views held by individual group members. Group decisions tend to be more extreme (in either direction) than individuals’ decisions would be.
Under what circumstances is dementia due to head trauma progressive?
Generally only after multiple head traumas. If it looks progressive after just one, there is usually a superimposed condition such as hydrocephalus.
