General Flashcards
What are the eligibility requirements for a commercial pilot certificate?
61.123
- Be at least 18 years old
- Be able to read, speak, write and understand English
- Hold at least a private pilot certificate
- Pass the required knowledge test
- Receive the required ground and flight training endorsements.
- Meet the aeronautical experience requirements
- Pass the required practical test
What is the minimum aeronautical experience for commercial checkride?
61.129
What personal documents must you have with you when acting as PIC?
61.3
- Pilot Certificate
- Government issued photo ID
- Medical Certificate (At least a 2nd class to exercise commercial pilot privileges)
What are the medical certificate privileges and for how long are they valid
What do you need to be able to fly under BasicMed?
- Hold a current and valid U.S. Drivers License
- Must hold or have held a valid medical certificate at some point after July 14, 2006
- Answer the health questions on the Comprehensive Medical Examination Checklist (CMEC)
- Get you physical examination by any state licensed physician, and have that physician complete the CMEC
- Take the Basic Med online medical education course and keep the course completion document at any time when flying.
What are the BasicMed privileges and limitations?
Operations that you could conduct under 3rd class medical certificate with certain limitations.
- No more than 6 passengers and no more than 7 occupants (including the pilot)
- Aircraft with maximum certificated takeoff weight of no more than 12,500 lbs
- Flights within the United States, at an indicated airspeed of no greater than 250 knots, and at an altitude at or below 18,000 feet mean sea level (MSL)
- Cannot fly for compensation or hire (there is an exception to this)
How do you maintain BasicMed privileges?
- CMEC that shows that your most recent physical exam was within the past 48 months
- Being treated by a physician for medical conditions that may affect the safety of flight
- Course completion certificate that was issued by a BasicMed medical training course provider within the past 24 calendar-months
What are the currency requirements for a pilot?
Currency requirements - 61.56/61.57
- Flight review or checkride in preceding 24 calendar months to act as PIC
- 3 TOLs in past 90 to carry passengers (full stop at night)
- If flying under an instrument flight plan within previous 6 months, 6 instrument approaches including holding, intercepting and tracking courses using navigation systems
What is the difference between being current and being proficient?
- Currency: The pilot meets the minimum FAA legal requirements to exercise their privileges (LEGAL)
- Proficiency: Possessing the skill, ability, and competency to fly safely and efficiently (SAFE)
Define compensation
Anything of value that the pilot receives upon the pilot acting as PIC of an aircraft (this includes money, goods, and services)
- Reimbursement of expenses, accumulation of flight time, and good will in the form of expected future economic benefits are considered compensation.
Define For Hire
For hire means the operation an aircraft is being used to transport people or goods in exchange for payment. Essentially, it means the service is available to the public for a fee.
Define common carriage
The willingness to transport persons or property from place to place for compensation or hire.
Define private carriage
Cariiage for hire which does not include holding out to the public, but instead to a selected group of individuals. Also known as contract carriage.
- There is a limit on how many contracts you can accept.
- Transporting a large # of passengers under the umbrella of one contract (sports teams + university)
Define Operator
The person who causes the aircraft to be used, authorizes its use in the carriage of persons or property for compensation or hire, other than air carrier.
Define Holding Out
Advertising or offering by any means including reputation or word-of-mouth (AC 61-142)
What are the 3 different definitions of night?
- Nav/position lights are needed from the time between sunset and sunrise.
- To log night time you need to fly between the end of evening civil twilight to the beginning of morning civil twilight
- To gain passenger night currency you need to get your three takeoffs and landings to a full stop completed between one hour after sunset to one hour before sunrise
What are your privileges as a commercial pilot?
Privileges: §61.133,
- May act as PIC of an aircraft for compensation or hire
- May carry passengers or property for compensation or hire
What are your limitations as a commercial pilot?
Limitations:
- Common carriage: a carrier becomes a “common carrier” when it “holds itself out” to the public to a segment of the public. Carriage of passengers or cargo as a result of holding out/advertising your availability to the public.
- Holding out: a carrier is holding out when they represent themselves as willing to furnish transportation within the limits of its facilities to any person who wants it (signs advertising their availability, gaining a reputation to “serve all” whom contact operator, a carrier that is only willing to carry certain types of traffic)
- Private carriage: carriage for hire that does not involve “holding out”. The carriage of one or several customers over a long-term basis, and showing a willingness to make a contract with anybody. Sometimes referred to as “contract carriers.”
What are your limitations as a commercial pilot if you don’t hold an instrument rating?
61.133
- Carriage of passengers for hire on cross country flights in excess of 50 NM is prohibited.
- Carriage of persons/property for hire at night is prohibited
What is the definition of a complex airplane and what do you need to be able to operate one?
61.1, 61.31(e)
A complex airplane is consider and airplane that has:
- Retractable landing gear
- Flaps
- Controllable pitch propeller/Constant speed propeller
And to be able to operate a complex airplane you must have received ground and flight training in a complex airplane, be proficient on it, and receive a complex airplane endorsement from an authorized instructor.
What is a high performance airplane and what do you need to operate one?
61.31(f)
A high performance aircraft is and aircraft that has an engine rated for more than 200hp.
In order to operate a high performance airplane you need to have received the ground and flight instruction in a high perfomance aircraft, be proficient on it and have received the proper endorsement from an authorized instructor.
When do you need a high altitude endorsement?
61.31(g)
“No person may act as pilot in command of a pressurized aircraft (an aircraft that has a service ceiling or maximum operating altitude, whichever is lower, above 25,000 feet MSL), unless that person has received and logged ground training from an authorized instructor and obtained an endorsement in the person’s logbook or training record from an authorized instructor who certifies the person has satisfactorily accomplished the ground training.”
What is the different between an accident and an incident according to the FAA?
49 CFR Part 830
- An accident is an occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft that takes happens between the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight and the time all persons have disembarked, and in which any person suffers death or serious injury, or in which the aircraft receives substantial damage
- An incident mmeans an occurrence other than an accident associated with the operation of an aircraft which affects or could affect the safey of operations.
What is an accronym to mitigate risks?
Pilot (IMSAFE, 5 P’s)
Aircraft (ATOMATOFLAMES, FLAPS, GRABCARD, AV1ATE, ARROWEC, and FMAT)
enVironment (NWKRAFT)
External pressures (deadlines, get-there-itis, etc.)
What is the pilot safety checklist?
Illness (am I sick or getting sick?)
Medication (am I on any medication? If so, is it approved by the FAA?)
Stress (we are all stressed, but is it excessive to the point of distraction?)
Alcohol (.04%, not feeling effects/hungover, 8 hours bottle to throttle - but have a greater personal minimum such as 24 hours)
Fatigue (how many hours of sleep did you get last night?)
Emotions/eating (are you emotionally stable? when did you last eat?)
What are the required aircraft documents?
91.203
Airworthiness certificate (displayed in cabin/visible to passengers)
Registration (valid 7 years)
Radio operators license (international)
Operating handbook/limitation (POH)
Weight and balance (found in POH)
External data plate
Compass deviation card
What are the required inspections your airplane must have to be legal?
Annual (12 calendar months)
VOR (30 days, IFR)
100-hour (for hire or flight instruction)
Altimeter/static (24 calendar months, IFR)
Transponder (24 calendar months)
ELT (121.5… inspection every 12 calendar months, battery replacement after 1 hour cumulative use or 1/2 battery life)
What is the required equipment for VFR day?
91.205 (b)
Altimeter
Tachometer
Oil pressure gauge
Manifold pressure gauge (constant speed prop)
Airspeed indicator
Temperature gauge (for each liquid cooled engines)
Oil temperature gauge
Fuel quantity indicator
Landing gear position indicator (retractable landing gears)
Anti-collision lights
Magnetic directional indicator
ELT
Safety belts
What is the required equipment for VFR night?
91.205(c)
Fuses
Landing light (for hire)
Anti-collision lights
Position/Nav lights
Source of power/electricity
What is the required equipment for IFR flight?
IFR 91.205(d) in addition to 91.205 b and c
Generator/alternator
Radio
(two way radio communication and navigational systems)
Altimeter (sensitive and adjustable for barometric pressure)
Ball and slip indicator
Clock
showing hours, minutes and seconds.
Attitude indicator
Rate of turn indicator
Directional gyro
What is the procces to follow for innoperative equipment in an aircraft?
FAA (91.205)
MEL/KOEL (minimum equipment list and kinds of operations equipment list)
ADs (airworthiness directives)
TCDS (type certificate data sheet, comprehensive equipment list found in POH)
SAIB special awareness info bulletin (manufacturer)
If equipment is inoperative and not required for flight, the equipment must be deactivated/removed and placarded as inoperative as indicated in 91.213
What is and MEL and a KOEL?
MEL: minimum equipment list is a list of things that can be inoperative and you can still fly (found in POH/AFM)
KOEL: kinds of operations equipment list is a list of things that need to be operative categorized by VFR day, VFR night, IFR (found in POH/AFM)
What checklist is it recommended to follow before a flight and for safe planning?
NOTAMs
Weather
Known ATC delays
Runway length and condition
Alternates
Fuel required
TOL performance
What are the fuel requirements for each flight?
- VFR day: Enough fuel for the flight to the destination and 30 minutes reserve
- VFR night: Enough fuel for the flight to the destination and 45 minutes reserve
- IFR: Enough fuel to point of intended landing + furthest alternate + 45 minutes reserve
What process do you follow if you become lost during a flight?
5 C’s
Confess you are lost
Climb to gain a safe altitude
Conserve fuel
Communicate to ATC you are lost
Comply with ATC instructions
Engine Failure steps:
Airspeed (pitch for 76 knots)
Best place to land (select and inspect)
Checklists (power-off landing)
Declare emergency (121.5, squawk 7700)
ELT
What is the order for the right of way between different aircrafts?
Emergency
Balloon
Glider
Aircraft refueling other aircraft
Airship
Rotorcraft/Airplane
What is pilotage and dead reckoning?
-
Pilotage: Pilotage is navigation by reference to landmarks or
checkpoints. - Dead reckoning: Dead reckoning is navigation solely by means of computations based on time, airspeed, distance, and direction.
How do you choose an altitude to fly at?
Altitudes are based on magnetic course
VFR altitudes:
0 - 179 degrees is odd plus 500 (ex 5500)
180 - 359 degrees is even plus 500 (ex 4500)
IFR altitudes:
0 - 179 degrees is odd thousand (5000)
180 - 359 degrees is even thousand (4000)
Before every flight consider the maximum elevation figures, obstacles, special use airspace, etc.
What is a special flight permit?
A special flight permit may be issued by the FSDO for an aircraft that may not currently meet applicable airworthiness requirements but is capable of safe flight, for the following purposes:
- Flying the aircraft to a base where repairs, alterations, or maintenance are to be performed, or to a point of storage.
- Flying an aircraft whose annual inspection has expired to a base where an annual inspection can be accomplished.
- Flying an amateur built aircraft whose condition inspection has expired to a base where the condition inspection can be accomplished.
- Delivering or exporting the aircraft.
- Production flight testing of new production aircraft.
- Evacuating aircraft from areas of impending weather
What are Life Limited Parts?
- Any part for which a mandatory replacement limit is specified in the type design.
- Life status means the accumulated cycles, hours of a life-limited part
- You can find if your aircraft has them in the TCDS (type certificate data sheet) or on the FAA website
What are ADs (airworthiness directives)?
Airworthiness Directives (ADs) are official notices issued by the FAA) to tell aircraft owners and operators about safety issues with specific aircraft or parts.
- They are regulatory and compliance is mandatory
- Types include one-time, recurring, and emergency
Differences between Annual vs. 100-Hour
Annual can replace a 100-hour, but a 100-hour cannot replace an annual inspection
An annual inspection is more detailed and restrictive
An annual inspection is done by an A&P mechanic (airframe and power plant) with an IA (inspection authorization)
What are approved sources of weather information for pilots?
- Aviationweather.gov
*1-800-WX-BRIEF
*FSS (flight service station)
*RCO (remote communications outlet)
*ForeFlight (reliable because the weather briefing pulls information from aviationweather.gov)
How would you get In flight weather information?
- FSS (flight service station)
- ATIS/AWOS/ASOS
- RCO (remote communications outlet)
- Flight deck (NEXRAD… WARNING THIS IS DELAYED INFO)
What is the atmosphere and what are some facts about it?
The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds the Earth. It is made up mostly of nitrogen and oxygen.
- ISA - International Standard Atmosphere (standard day)
- 29.92” Hg, 15 degrees Celsius at sea level
- Standard pressure lapse rate is 1” Hg every 1,000’
- Standard temperature lapse rate is 2 degrees celsius every 1,000’
- Atmospheric stability is the ability for the air to resist vertical development/lift
- Weather moves from west to east
- All weather comes from the uneven heating of the earth’s surface
What is the coriolis effect?
The Coriolis effect is the deflection of moving objects, such as air and water, caused by Earth’s rotation. As the Earth spins on its axis, objects traveling long distances on its surface are deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
- The spinning of the earth deflects the airflow in the global circulation pattern
- Northern hemisphere = air deflected to the right
- Southern hemisphere = air deflected to the left
- Within 2,000’ of the surface = friction slows airspeed and deflects its direction
What are the different types of aircraft icing?
- Induction icing
- Structural icing
- Instrument icing
- Intake icing
What primarily determines the vertical extent of clouds?
Vertical extent of clouds is primarily determined by the stability of the atmosphere.
- Stable - resists vertical development, I.e. stratiform clouds (smooth air, steady precipitation, fair to poor visibility
- Unstable - rising air, I.e. cumuliform clouds (rough air, showery precipitation, good visibility, thunderstorms)
What is Dew point?
Dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled to become fully saturated
What happens when temperature and dew point are close together?
When temperature and dew point are close (within 5 degrees), visible moisture will form (clouds, dew, fog, frost) which is ideal for carburetor icing
What is a temperature inversion?
A temperature inversion is a layer in the atmosphere in which air temperature increases with height.
It typically occurs during calm clear nights caused by rapid radiation cooling of the surface and air near it.
Explain intake icing
It occurs when ice forms within the engine’s intake system and tipically caused by the presence of water vapor in the air.
What are the characteristics of clear ice and rime ice and the differences
What does it take for structural icing to occur?
Structural icing occurs on an aircraft when supercooled water droplets in the atmosphere freeze upon contact with the aircraft’s surfaces. For this to happen, the aircraft must be flying through visible moisture, such as clouds, rain, or fog, in temperatures typically at or below 0°C (32°F)
What is frost?
Frost is the formation of ice crystals on surfaces when the temperature falls below the freezing point of water causing moisture to condense and freeze.
What does it take for frost to form?
Occurs when temp and dew point are both below freezing + collecting surface below freezing
Why is frost dangerous for pilots?
Frost is dangerous because it affects lift by disrupting the laminar flow over the wing.
Discuss AIRMETS
AIRMETS are weather advisorsies issued to warn pilots of hazardous meteorological conditions that may affect the aircraft operations particularly for small aircrafts.
They are issued 4 times a day every 6 hours.
The three types of airmets are:
* Sierra: Mountain obscuration or widespread IFR conditions
* Tango: Turbulence
* Zulu: Icing
Discuss SIGMETS
SIGMETS are weather advisories issued to warn all aircrafts regardless of size or capability about severe weather conditions that could pose serious hazards to flight safety. Unlike AIRMETS, SIGMETS address significant and more dangerous weather.
They are published as needed valid for 4 hours.
Some of the weather phenomenoms that they are issued for are:
- Severe or extreme turbulence
- Severe icing
- Volcanic ash
- Dust storms
What are Convective SIGMETS?
Convective SIGMETS are advisories issued for significant meteorological conditions related to convective activity that is hazardous to all aircraft.
They are published daily with a valid period of 2 hours.
They are issued when there are existing conditions such as:
- Severe thunderstorms producing hail
- Surface winds greater than 50 knots
- Severe low level wind shear
- Embedded thunderstorms
- Tornadoes
What is a TAF and how often is it updated?
A TAF (Terminal Aerodrome Forecast) is a weather forecast specifically for the area around an airport. TAFs offer forecasts of expected weather including wind, visibility and significant weather.
- Withing 5SM of the center of the airport.
- Published 4 times a day every 6 hours and they are valid for 24 hours
What is a METAR?
METAR is a standardized weather report that provides essential information about current weather conditions at an airport. This report provides information like temperature and dew point, wind, visibility, weather conditions, cloud cover, barometric pressure and density altitude. It usually updates every hour or every significant change in weather.
METARs are typically issued hourly at 55 minutes past the hour. Updates, called SPECI METARs, are issued as needed when significant weather changes occur.
What are the effects of a FWD and an AFT CG?
What arm is the front CG?
80.5
What is maneuvering speed?
Maneuvering Speed (Va) is the speed at which the airplane will stall before exceeding its limit-load factor and any damage is made to the structure of the aircraft.
How do you calculate maneuvering speed?
What is the 60:1 rule?
One degree of course change will put you 1 NM off course after 60NM are traveled.
How is lift created?
Lift in an aircraft is created by the aerodynamic forces acting on the wings as air flows over and under them. When the wing moves through the air, its shape (airfoil) causes the air pressure above the wing to be lower than the pressure below the wing. This pressure difference generates an upward force called lift.
Two key principles explain lift:
- Bernoulli’s Principle: Faster airflow over the curved upper surface of the wing reduces pressure, creating lift.
- Newton’s Third Law of Motion: The wing deflects air downward, and in reaction, the air pushes the wing upward.
The amount of lift depends on factors such as airspeed, air density, wing shape, angle of attack, and wing area. However, if the angle of attack becomes too steep, the airflow separates from the wing, causing a stall and a loss of lift.
What is drag?
Drag is the aerodynamic force that opposes an aircraft’s motion through the air, essentially resisting its forward movement. It is caused by the friction and pressure differences between the aircraft and the air as the aircraft moves
There are two types of drag:
- Induced drag: This type of drag is related to the generation of lift. As lift is produced by the wings, the airflow over the wings creates vortices at the wingtips, increasing drag. Induced drag is higher at lower speeds and decreases as the aircraft moves faster. induced drag is the bypoduct of lift
- Parasite drag: Parasite drag is the drag that an aircraft experiences from the resistance of the air as it moves through it.
there are three types of parasite drag:
- Form drag: Caused by the shape and size of the aircraft, creating resistance as it moves through the air.
- Skin Friction: is due to the friction of the air against the surface of the aircraft that is moving through it. for expamplen paint and fasteners can cause skin friction drag.
- Interferance: g is due to the mixing of airflow streamlines between airframe components such as the wing and fuselage.
What is load factor?
The ratio of lift being produced compared to the weight of the aircraft.
Equation is Total Load = Total lift / weight
When does a stall occur?
A stall occurs when a wings exceed the critical angle of attack causing the airflow over the wing become tubulent and separate, at this point the wing is no longer generating lift.
What is stagnation point?
The spot where the airflow splits is called the “stagnation point.” When your wing is at a low angle of attack (AOA), the stagnation point is on the leading edge, and when your wing is at a high angle of attack, the stagnation point moves below the leading edge.
How does a stall strip work?
Stall strips begin working when your wing is at a high angle of attack. Because the stagnation point is on the underside of the wing, air flows up and around the leading edge, making its way over the top of the wing. With no stall strip, airflow can stay attached to the wing as this happens. Stall strips are typically fairly small, and placed near the root of the wing (next to the fuselage). The idea behind their location is simple: you want your wing to begin stalling in a desirable location, which is typically the root. When the root of the wing stalls first, you still have aileron roll control in the stall’s early stages
Discuss the left turning tendencies
TORQUE: Torque is an example of Newton’s third law, for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. When the propeller spins to the right, it creates a force that tries to roll the airplane to the left.
Left roll
Left yaw on ground
GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION: Gyroscopic precession is the phenomenon where a force applied to a spinning object is felt 90 degrees ahead in the direction of rotation. For a clockwise-rotating propeller, this means that forces applied to the propeller result in a left-turning force on the aircraft.
Climb = Right yaw
Descent = Left yaw
P FACTOR / ASYMMETRICAL LOADING: The descending propeller blade has a greater angle of attack when the airplane is pitched up, therefore the right descending blade creates more lift. This causes a left yawing tendency.
Climb = Left yaw
Descent = Right yaw
SPIRALING SLIPSTREAM: The spiral slipstream is the flow of air that wraps around the fuselage and strikes the tail from the left side. This airflow creates a force that pushes the tail to the right, causing the airplane to yaw to the left.
Left yaw
What is adverse yaw?
Adverse yaw is the tendency of an aircraft to yaw in the opposite direction of a turn. This happens because when you roll the aircraft into a turn, the ailerons cause a difference in lift between the wings. The down-going aileron generates more lift and drag, while the up-going wing generates less. The increased drag on the down-going aileron causes the aircraft to yaw away from the turn.
Why would the aircraft pull to the left on takeoff?
- Rudder trim full left
- Brake stuck
- Rudder stuck
- Flat tire
- Engine cut
We shouln’t take off
What are the different airspeeds?
- IAS: Indicated airspeed is what is indicated in the plane
- CAS: Calibrated airspeed is IAS corrected for instrument error
- TAS: True airspeed is CAS corrected for altitude (air density and temperature)
- GS: Groundspeed is TAS corrected for wind
What are the different altitudes?
- Indicated altitude: altimeter reading
- True altitude: above sea level
- Absolute altitude: above ground level
- Pressure altitude: True altitude corrected for non standard pressure.
- Density altitude: Pressure altitude corrected for non standard temperature.
- Flight level: pressure altitude expressed in 100s of feet
When do you need a transponder?
- In Class A, Class B, or Class C airspace areas
*Above the ceiling and within the lateral boundaries of Class B or Class C airspace up to 10,000’ MSL
- Class E airspace at and above 10,000’ MSL excluding airspace below 2,500’ AGL
- Within Mode C Veil
- ADSB-Out Class E airspace at and above
3,000’ MSL over the Gulf of Mexico from the coastline of the United States out to 12 NM
What are the different illusion a pilot can experience while flying?
Inversion: When a quick level-off from a climb feels like you are tumbling backward.
Coriolis: Moving your head while in a prolonged turn can make you feel like the plane is tilting in strange directions.
Elevator: A sudden updraft or downdraft can make you feel like the plane is climbing or descending when it isn’t.
False Horizon: Lights, clouds, or terrain can look like the horizon, making it hard to find the real one.
Leans: A slow turn that goes unnoticed can feel level, and correcting it feels like you’re banking.
Autokinesis: A stationary light in the dark appears to move when you stare at it for too long.
Graveyard Spiral: When recovering from a spin or spiral, it can feel like you’re spinning in the opposite direction. When you notice and try to correct for it, then you start turning again but while turning, altitude is being lost and the situation gets worst putting you in a spiral descent situation.
Somatogravic: Acceleration feels like the nose is pitching up, and deceleration feels like it’s pitching down.
What is hypoxia?
Hypoxia is a medical condition where the body or a specific part of it doesn’t receive enough oxygen to sustain normal function.
Symptoms include increased breathing rate, headache, euphoria, poor judgment, sweating, poor coordination, etc.
There are 4 types:
* Hypoxic
* Hypemic
* Histotoxic
* Stagnant
Hypoxic hypoxia: Happens when your body doesn’t get enough oxygen due to the lower air pressure at high altitudes. As you go higher, the air becomes thinner, which means there’s less pressure to push oxygen into your lungs and blood.
Hypemic hypoxia: This type occurs when the blood cannot carry enough oxygen to the tissues, even if there is adequate oxygen in the air and lungs. Causes include conditions like anemia, carbon monoxide poisoning (where hemoglobin binds to carbon monoxide instead of oxygen), or blood loss, all of which reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood
Histotoxic hypoxia: This occurs when the body’s cells are unable to use the oxygen being supplied to them. The oxygen reaches the cells, but a problem with the cells prevents its utilization, often caused by alcohol and other drugs such as narcotics and poisons.
Stagnant hypoxic: Stagnant hypoxia occurs from oxygen deficiency in the body due to poor circulation of the blood.
Some of the causes could be pulling excessive Gs or cold temperatures that may reduce blood flow to the extremities.
What is carbon monoxide?
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that poses a serious risk to pilots because it can cause carbon monoxide poisoning, impairing a pilot’s ability to safely operate an aircraft. CO is commonly produced by incomplete combustion in aircraft engines and can leak into the cabin.
When inhaled, CO binds to hemoglobin in the blood much more strongly than oxygen, reducing the blood’s ability to carry oxygen to the body’s tissues. This causes hypemic hypoxia, leading to symptoms such as headache, dizziness, nausea, confusion, and even unconsciousness.
What is The Bends (Decompression Sickness)?
Decompression sickness is caused by the development of nitrogen bubbles in the blood and tissues as a result of a reduction of atmospheric pressure which happens too quickly for the body to dispose of the excessive nitrogen.
The most common symptom of decompression sickness is ‘the Bends’, manifested by pain in and around the large joints of the body; other common symptoms include chest pains, difficulty breathing, skin irritation, and cramps. Severe cases can result in paralysis or death.
Excessive rates of atmospheric pressure reduction typically can occur due to:
- Rapid or explosive decompression of an aircraft.
- Rapid ascent while SCUBA diving from depth to the surface.
- Exposure to typical aircraft cabin altitudes (5,000 to 8,000ft) too soon after SCUBA diving.
How do you treat decompression sickness?
- Put on an oxygen mask and witch regulator to 100% oxygen
- Begin an emergency descent and land as soon as possible
- Ask ATC for help getting sick passenger to a hyperbaric chamber
What is the recommended waiting time before flying after you scuba dive?
- Before going to flight altitudes of up to 8,000 feet is at least 12 hours after diving that does not require controlled ascent (nondecompression stop diving)
- At least 24 hours after diving that does require controlled ascent (decompression stop diving)
What is stress?
Stress in refers to the physical, emotional, and mental strain experienced by pilots and crew members due to various factors, including:
- Workload
- Time pressure
- Environmental pressure
- Personal Stress
The two types of stress are:
- Acute stress: Immediate threat
- Chronic stress: Accumulated/long-term stress
What is fatigue?
Fatigue is the state of physical and mental exhaustion, typically due to insufficient rest or prolonged periods of high workload. In aviation fatigue can be caused by:
- Long duty hours
- Lack of sleep
- Jet lag
- High Physical and Mental Workload
The two types of fatigue are:
- Acute fatigue: Short-term exhaustion
- Chronic fatigue: Long-term exhaustion
What are the hazardous attitutes, an example and their antidotes?
What are the oxygen requirements for crew and passengers at different altitudes?
- 12,500’ - 14,000’ MSL : Required minimum crew must use supplemental oxygen for flight time that exceeds 30 minutes
- 14,001’ - 15,000’ MSL : Required minimum crew must use supplemental oxygen the entire flight time above 14,000’
- 15,001’ MSL and above : Each occupant must be provided with supplemental oxygen
For optimum protection, pilots are encouraged to use supplemental oxygen above 10,000’ during the day, and above 5,000’ at night (eyes require more oxygen at night)
What are the basic componets of oxygen delivery?
- Storage system
- Delivery system
- Mask or nasal cannula
What are the oxygen storage systems?
Oxygen can be stored as a gas, liquid, or solid.
- Gaseous aviator’s breathing oxygen (ABO): Storing oxygen as a gas has the advantage os being more economical but a big downside is the weight and how bulky it is.
- Liquid aviator’s breathing oxygen (LOX): Lox has the advantages that is more compact than gas and a small volume of LOX can be converted into a much larger volume of breathable oxygen. The major disadvantages are its handling since LOX is stored at critical temperatures of -197°F and in exposure with the skin it could cause sever frostbite.
- Sodium chlorate candles (solid-state oxygen): Sodium chlorate is a chemical that, when heated to 350 degrees Fahrenheit, will thermally decompose and release oxygen. Sodium chlorate candles have the advantage of saving weight and space over ABO because it provides a 600:1 expansion ratio. The major disadvantage is that once the chemical reaction (the candle is activated) has started, it can’t be easily stopped. Additionally, the candle produces a great deal of heat, and precautions must be taken to avoid a fire hazard.
- Molecular sieve oxygen generators (MSOG): The air that we breathe contains basically 21% oxygen, and the remainder is inert gases that play no major physiological role in the body. MSOGs take ambient air that separates oxygen from inert gases, using that to supply oxygen to the aircraft. The military has used this system for many years, as well as medical patients who need a portable oxygen system. Civil aviation hasn’t embraced MSOG, but it may be in future aircraft.
What are the different oxygen delivery systems?
- Continuous flow: This system delivers a continuous flow of oxygen from the storage container. It is a very economical system in that it doesn’t need complicated masks or regulators to function. But it is also very wasteful - the flow of oxygen is constant whether you’re inhaling, exhaling, or pausing between breaths. This system is typically used at 28,000’ or lower
- Diluter demand: The diluter demand system is designed to compensate for the short-comings of the continuous-flow system. It gives the user oxygen on-demand (during inhalation) and stops the flow when the demand ceases (during exhalation). This helps conserve oxygen. Additionally, the incoming oxygen is diluted with cabin air and provides the proper percentage of oxygen, depending on the altitude. This system is typically used at altitudes up to 40,000’.
- Pressure demand: This system provides oxygen under positive pressure. Positive pressure is a forceful oxygen flow that is intended to slightly over-inflate the lungs. This will, in a sense pressurize the lungs to a lower altitude, thus allowing you to fly at altitudes above 40,000’, where 100% oxygen without positive pressure will not suffice
What are the different oxygen masks and cannulas?
- Nasal cannulas: These are continuous-flow devices and offer the advantage of personal comfort. They are restricted by federal aviation regulations to 18,000’ service altitude because of the risk of reducing oxygen-blood saturation levels if one breathes through the mouth or talks too much
- Oral-nasal re-breather: This type is the most common and least expensive. It is also the simplest in operation; it has an external plastic bag that inflates every time you exhale. The purpose of the bag is to store exhaled air, so it may be mixed with 100% oxygen to keep the user physiologically safe up to 25,000’ (Diluter demand)
- Quick-don mask: These masks must demonstrate the ability to be donned with one hand in 5 seconds or less, while accommodating prescription glasses. Quick-don masks are typically suspended or stored to permit quick and unimpeded access by cockpit crew. These masks are typically rated for altitudes up to 40,000’ (Diluter demand)
- Airline drop-down units (dixie cup): The phase-sequential continuous-flow mask looks similar to a GA re-breather. However, both masks function differently, and the phase sequential mask allows the user to go to higher altitudes. This mask uses a series of one-way ports that allow a mixture of 100% oxygen and cabin air into the mask. Exhalation is vented to the atmosphere; as a result, the bag does not inflate. This mask can be safely used at emergency altitudes up to 40,000’
Above 40,000’ you need a pressure demand mask
What is Time of Useful Consciousness?
Time of Useful Consciousness (TUC) is the amount of time a pilot or passenger can think and act effectively after being exposed to low oxygen levels (hypoxia), such as during a rapid cabin depressurization.
How does a pressurized cabin work?
- Ambient air is introduced into a compressor, which is usually the airplane’s engine. As the air is compressed, it heats up rapidly. This heated air is sent through a cooling unit, like a fuel-air heat exchanger. Through ducting, this air is then introduced into the cabin. A series of over-flow or outflow valves regulate how quickly air is released from the cabin. Air comes into the cabin quicker than it’s released, creating a high-pressure cabin environment.
- A compressor that pressurizes air and 2 check valves (one backup) to prevent over-pressurization and a blow/outflow valve.
What is the absolute ceiling and the service ceiling?
A service ceiling is not really an absolute limit on the altitude that a particular design can achieve, but one at which the aircraft begins to run out of climb capability (less than 500 fpm). The absolute altitude is a measure of how high an aircraft can climb, when it runs out of any further climb capability, under normal-rated load.
For the archer:
- Service Ceiling: 14,085’
- Absolute Ceiling: 16,400’
Explain what are the magnetos and how they work
The magnetos are engine driven units, part of the ignition system of the aircraft. They provide the spark that ignites the fuel-air mixture in the engine’s cylinders. Each magneto sparks one spark plug per cylinder for efficency and redundancy so if one of them fails, the other one will keep the engine running.
(Note: Performance decreases if only one magnetos is working. With only one spark plug firing per cylinder instead of two, the combustion process is less efficient, leading to a slight drop in engine power)
Principle of operation: As the crankshaft turns, it drives the magneto’s rotor, which contatins a permanent magnet. The magnet spins in close proximity to a coil of wire. As the magnet spins it generates a strong magnetic force that is “held back” by a primary coil. The moment the contact points open, a rapid magnetic flow generates a high voltage in the secondary coil, which ignites the spark plug, thus firing the engine. The two magnetos on most GA aircraft—the left and the right—each fire one of two spark plugs on each cylinder. There are two magnetos so that if one fails the engine continues to run, but will be less efficient.
What is a sign of foul spark plugs?
- Engine Roughness
- Exccessive loss of RPM during run-up mag check
- Difficult engine starts
- Poor performance
What is a hot magneto?
A hot magneto happens when a magneto continues to produce sparks even when the ignition switch is set to “OFF.” This can happen due to a fault in the magneto grounding system, typically caused by a broken or disconnected grounding wire. This can be noted if there is no change in RPM during mag check in run-up.
Describe the piper archer propeller
The Piper Archer is equipped with a Sensenich two-bladed , fixed-pitch, metal propeller. The propeller diameter is 76 inches, the maximum RPM is 2700 RPM. The propeller RPM is directly adjusted by the engine throttle lever. This is a fixed pitch propeller which means the pitch of the blades cannot be adjusted by the pilot or during flight operations therefore the speed of the propeller is directly related to the engine’s speed. Blade is twisted to create equal lift across the propeller.
What type of ailerons do we have, what are the pros of them.
We have differential ailerons in the piper archer, by differential ailerons we know that the aileron that deflects ups, deflects more (25°) than the one deflecting down (17.5°). The purpose of the differential ailerons is to contribute in the reduction of adverse yaw.
The way it works is, the aileron in the upward position (the right aileron in this example) creates less lift and less drag than the aileron that is lowered. The aileron angled downward (the left aileron in this example) produces more drag and more lift, initially yawing the airplane in the opposite direction of your roll.
What is adverse yaw and how do we counter act it?
Adverse yaw is the tendency of an airplane to yaw in the opposite direction of the turn. For example, as you roll to the right, your airplane may initially yaw to the left.
It occurs when ailerons are used to initiate a turn, causing unequal drag on the wings. The aileron deflected upwards decreases lift and drag on that wing while the one deflecting downward produces more lift but at the same time produces more induced drag, and this results on the nose of the airplane to yaw in the direction of the wing producing induced drag.
To counter act adverse yaw is very important to be coordinated using the rudder during turns.
What are flaps?
Flaps are part of the secondary flight controls of the aircraft. They are movable panels located on the trailing edge of an aircraft’s wings.
Their job is to increase the lift and drag of the wing, allowing for better control during certain phases of flight, particularly during takeoff, landing, and slow-speed flight.
What kind of flaps do we have in the archer, what are the benefits of that type?
We have slotted flaps in the archer.
When slotted flaps are extended they open a slot between the wing and the flap that leaves room for the high pressure air under the wing to flow through the gap re-energizing and delaying airflow separation.
What are NOTAMS?
NOTAMs (Notices to Air Missions) are notices issued by the FAA for pilots and flight operations personnel. They provide timely, essential updates about the condition or changes in aeronautical facilities, services, procedures, or hazards.
What are the different types of NOTAMs?
- Class I & II
- International
- Domestic
- Civil
- Military
- Published
- FDC
- Contain regulatory and procedural information, such as:
Temporary flight restrictions (TFRs).
Amendments to instrument approach procedures (IAPs).
Airspace-related information.
- Contain regulatory and procedural information, such as:
- Center Area
- Issued by Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCCs) and cover large geographical areas.
- Notams (D)
- Provides information on aerodromes, facilities, and en route navigational aids.
Includes runway closures, lighting outages, or weather conditions.
- Provides information on aerodromes, facilities, and en route navigational aids.
What is trim and what kind of trim do we have?
Trim is a secondary flight control and it’s job is to reduce pilot workload and improve comfort by releving and balancing aerodynamic forces.
Anti servo tab is a type of trim used in stabilators. Anti-servo trim moves in the same direction as the stabilator.
This increases aerodynamic resistance, providing heavier control forces and preventing over-controlling (overly sensitive inputs).
What is a stabilator and what is the difference with a normal stabilizer and elevator?
The stabilator combines the functions of both the horizontal stabilizer and the elevator. Instead of having a fixed stabilizer with a hinged elevator for pitch control, the entire horizontal surface moves as a single unit to control the aircraft’s pitch.
What means CAS on the PFD?
Crew Alerting System
What are signs that your alternator has failed?
- 0 alternator amps
- Battery is being discharged/negative
- CAS message
- Battery volts less than 28 (28 volt system, 24 volt battery so the volts would decrease to the number of volts available which is only coming from the battery)
- Popped circuit breaker
Describe the fuel system in the archer
- 50 total gallons, 2 gallons unusable so 48 usable gallons of fuel
⠀⠀ - 2 gallons unusable because that is where any sediment/contaminants would end up at the bottom of the tank
⠀⠀ - 100LL (blue) or 100 (green) is acceptable
⠀⠀ - 24 gallons in each tank
⠀⠀ - There is a fuel tab that indicates 17 gallons of fuel in tank
⠀⠀ - Float type sensors in each tank to detect volume of fuel (which is why it is so inaccurate)
⠀⠀ - No primer in 3rd cylinder because we use the same engine as the Seminole, but we do not have a constant speed prop so we do not have a manifold pressure sensor which would be in our 3rd cylinder, Piper just leaves the space plugged because we do not need all 4 cylinders primed to be able to start the engine effectively
What is the four stroke cycle of an engine?
The four strokes of an engine are intake, compression, power, and exhaust.
⠀⠀
- Intake: Fuel-air mixture is introduced into the cylinder through intake valve
⠀⠀ - Compression: The trapped fuel-air mixture is compressed by the piston
⠀⠀ - Combustion/Power: Charge (the volume of compressed air-fuel mixture trapped inside the combustion chamber ready for ignition) is ignited and forces the piston away from the cylinder head
⠀⠀ - Exhaust: Spent gases are expelled from the combustion chamber and released into the atmosphere (exhaust valve open, intake valve is closed)
What are some combustion issues and how do they happen?
- Pre-ignition: Pre-ignition occurs when the fuel-air mixture ignites prematurely, before the spark plug fires. The ignition is caused by a hot spot in the cylinder, such as a glowing piece of carbon, an overheated spark plug or a burned exhaust valve.
- Detonation: Detonation is the uncontrolled explosion of the fuel-air mixture inside the cylinder, occurring after normal ignition. Detonation is the uncontrolled explosion of the fuel-air mixture inside the cylinder, occurring after normal ignition. Causes can be high cylinder temperature and pressure, low octane fuel, leaning the mixtrue excessively.
What kind of oil does the archer use and what are functions of the oil?
- W15W - 50
- Oil cools, seals, lubricates, and cleans
What are some conditions of the oil pressure gauge and what actions should be taken if?
- Oil pressure down + oil temperature up = declare emergency and try to cool engine by descending/pitch nose down and reduce power
- Oil pressure gauge not working = not airworthy so find a suitable place to land (preferably an airport with a mechanic or close to one) and monitor situation
What are LRUs and which ones are there in the aircraft?
Line Replaceable Units (LRUs) are modular components within the Garmin G1000 integrated avionics system.
IMETAPAM
- IAD (Integrated Avionics Unit)
- MFD (Multi-Function Display)
- EAU (Engine Airframe Unit)
- Transponder
- AD-AHRS (Air Data Computer and Attitude
Heading Reference System) - PFD (Primary Flight Display)
- Audio Panel
- Magnetometers
What are the components of the AHRS system?
- Attitude
- Rate of turn
- Slip/skid
- Heading (magnetometers)
What are the components of the ADC Air Data Computer?
- OAT
- Airspeed
- Altitude
- Vertical speed
What emergency equipment do we have on board?
- Fire extinguisher
- ELT
What is the difference between anti ice and deice equippment?
The main difference between anti ice and de ice is:
-
Anti Ice: Prevent ice from forming in the first place.
- Pitot heat
- Defroster
- Carb heat
-
De Ice: Remove ice after it has formed on the aircraft.
We don’t have any deice equipment because
How does a carburator work and what type do we have?
We have a float type carburetor.
The fuel enters the float chamber through the fuel inlet, the float inside the chamber works just as the float inside a toilet tank and controls the level of fuel inside the chamber.
The mixture needle controls fuel to the discharge nozzle.
Pressure difference between the ambient pressure in the chamber and the low pressure are in the venturi cause the fuel to be delivered and be disposed through the discharge nozzle.
Fuel is mixed with the air entering the carburetor and the mix is controlled by the throttle valve which allows this mixture to enter and is directly controlled by the throttle in the cockpit just the way the mixture control is managed by the pilot with the mixture lever.
What are favorable conditions for carburetor icing?
Temperatures from 20°F to 70°F and high humidity
What are some advantages and disadvantages of fuel injected and carbureted engine.
-
Fuel injected engines are more fuel efficient due to the air-to-fuel mixture being
more precise. In these engines, the fuel and air mixture is mixed directly in the
cylinder. Although fuel injected engines have many pros, they are harder to
maintain and more expensive. They are also susceptible to vapor lock. This is
when the fuel in the lines evaporates and turns to a gas.
⠀⠀ -
Carbureted engines are cheaper to maintain. In these engines, the fuel/air mixture
is mixed in the carburetor and then sent to the cylinders. This causes the fuel/air
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mixture to be less precise. Another con to carbureted engines is the chance to
encounter carburetor icing.
What happens when you start the engine?
- A small gear attached to the starter unit is responsible for engaging the flywheel, which kick-starts the whole process.
⠀⠀ - The flywheel turns the crankshaft, which forces the pistons to move up and down.
The magnetos start spinning, which generates a strong current that travels to the spark plugs.
⠀⠀ - Impulse coupler in the left magneto provides the power needed to spin the magneto faster (prop goes from spinning slowly to suddenly at 1000 RPM)
⠀⠀ - There is already fuel inside the cylinders from the initial priming, so now there is combustion.
⠀⠀ - At this point engine operation becomes self-sustaining, so the starter can be released.
⠀⠀ - The rapid opening and closing of the cylinders spins the crankshaft, which is directly connected to the propeller, causing it to spin.
Movement vs Non Movement Areas
At towered airports, the airport surface area is divided into two parts: non-movement area and movement area. The non-movement area is defined as ramps and aprons and isnotcontrolled by ATC, which means you may move or taxi the airplane without clearance or communications with the control tower. The movement area is defined as all taxiways and runways and is under the jurisdiction of the control tower, so a taxi clearance is required prior to entering into the movement area
Types of hydroplaning
- Dynamic: Water lifts wheels off of runway, this happens because there is a buildup of water in front of your tires and lifts them off the runway
- Reverted rubber: When your tires lock up, rubber starts to melt, trapped water under tire turns into steam
- Viscous: When oil or accumulated rubber combines with water on the runway, it can form an impenetrable layer of liquid your tires cannot break through
What are the differences between part 91 vs 121 vs 135?
Part 91
Covers non-commercial flights, such as private flying, flight training, and recreational aviation. Part 91 is the least restrictive of the three parts, with more flexibility and lower compliance costs. However, it also has less stringent safety oversight.
⠀⠀
Part 121
Regulates scheduled airlines, such as regional and major airlines. Part 121 is the most restrictive of the three parts, with strict safety standards and requirements for pilots. Pilots must have an Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) certificate.
⠀⠀
Part 135
Applies to charter and commuter operations, such as private jet charter flights and air taxi services. Part 135 has higher qualifications for pilots and rigorous maintenance standards. It also offers a balance between flexibility and regulatory oversight.
Explain static and dynamic stability
Static stability: Static stability refers to the initial tendency of an aircraft to return to its original position or equilibrium after being displaced.
- Positive Static Stability: The aircraft tends to return to its original position when disturbed.
- Neutral Static Stability: The aircraft remains in the new position when disturbed.
- Negative Static Stability: The aircraft tends to move further away from its original position when disturbed.
Dynamic stability: Dynamic stability refers to the aircraft’s behavior over time after the initial disturbance. It describes whether the oscillations around the equilibrium position increase, remain constant, or decrease.
- Positive Dynamic Stability: The oscillations decrease over time, eventually returning the aircraft to equilibrium.
- Neutral Dynamic Stability: The oscillations neither grow nor diminish, remaining constant over time.
- Negative Dynamic Stability: The oscillations increase over time, potentially leading to a loss of control.
