Gender Theories/Concepts Flashcards
Reflectionism
According to this view, language simply reflects our thoughts. E.g. Sexist terms only exist because people have sexist attitudes.
Determinism
Based on a relativist view that individual languages differ greatly in lexis and grammar, so speakers of different languages will experience and understand the world in different ways. According to this view, language actually controls thought.
Interdependent
Most linguists now believe that language and thoughts are interdependent. Sexist language exists because of sexist attitudes. But, growing up in a society where such terms are current may encourage people to accept/adopt those attitudes.
Mulvey (1995)
‘The Male Gaze’ claims that women are turned into sex objects through how they are shot in the media. Showing ‘body parts’ and not the whole body turns them into ‘objects’ of male pleasure.
Earp and Katz (1999)
Studied male representation in the media and found ‘a widespread and disturbing equation of masculinity and pathological control and violence.’
Otto Jesperson (1929)
Deficit Theory: Language of men is the ‘norm’ and all other genders are ‘deficit’. Women are easily offended, use weak language, have limited vocabularies, use more veiled expressions and avoid coarse language.
Robin Lakoff (1970s)
Women’s language includes:
Emphatic Stress - exaggerated pitch/volume on certain words
Hedges - make utterances more tentative
Hypercorrect Grammar - stick to Standard English
Precise Colour Terms - ‘scarlet’ ‘burgandy’
Superpolite Forms - euphemism and lack of taboo
Tag Questions - turn an utterance into an interrogative
Intensifiers - ‘So happy’ ‘Really mad’ to add strength of meaning
Lack humour, speak less frequently, apologise more
O’Barr and Atkins (1980)
Challenged Robin Lakoff’s view of women’s language.
Looked at courtroom cases and witnesses’ speech.
Research shows that language differences are based on situation-specific authority or power, not gender. (Of course, there may be situations where for other reasons, women are the same as those who lack power.)
This is a far more limited claim than that made by Dale Spender. (Dominance Theory.)
Dale Spender - Dominance Theory
The standard human being is male and those not in this category are allocated to a category of ‘deviation’. (Those who are less than male.)
Women are categorised as less than male, creating a ‘patriarchal order’. Therefore, men control language.
Zimmerman and West - Dominance Theory
Men are dominant and controlling in mixed-sex conversations, with 96% of interruptions made by men. Seen as a sign that women have limited linguistic freedom and men used power and status to impose explicit constraints. Therefore, men and women do not have equal conversational rights.
Nicola Woods (1988) - Dominance Theory
Recorded three-party interactions in work settings, including both male and female supervisors and subordinates.
Concluded that status AND gender affect behaviour, but GENDER has a bigger impact, and even when a women held a high-status occupation, male subordinates still organised the interactions in a way that allowed them to dominate the floor.
Pamela Fishman - Interaction: The Work Women Do(1983)
Argues that conversation between the sexes sometimes fails, not because of anything inherent in the way women talk, but because of how men respond or don’t respond.
Pamela Fishman/Robin Lakoff
Fishman questions Lakoff’s theory that women’s use of tag questions shows insecurity and hesitancy, instead arguing that tag questions are an attribute of interactions. Women ask questions because they contain power, not because of their personality weaknesses.
Fishman also claims that in mixed-sex conversations, men speak on average for twice as long as women.
Deborah Tannen - Difference Theory
MEN VS WOMEN Conflict vs Compromise Status vs Support Independence vs Intimacy Advice vs Understanding Information vs Feelings Orders vs Proposals
Pilkington - Difference Theory
Women: focused on personal experiences, feelings and relationships, built on and develop each others’ points, complete each others utterances, agree frequently and give supportive feedback.
Men: focused on activities and information, with the conversations often used to establish a hierarchy and compete for power. Contains long pauses, frequent disagreement, challenging and arguing, mock insults and competitiveness to the point of verbal abuse.
