Gender Psychology Midterm 2 Flashcards
Ambivalent sexism
The theory that describes hostile sexism and benevolent sexism
Hostile sexism: overtly negative attitudes and beliefs toward women, veiwing them as manipulative and inferior
Benevolent sexism: seemingly positive attitudes that still reinforce gender inequality
Glick and Fiskes theory: chivalry towards women is benevolent sexism
Birkenhead drill code: 19th century — women and children should be saved first
Patriarchal societies
Controlled by men
Patrilineal: trace descent and pass inheritance through fathers
Patrilocal: Wives live near husbands family
Matriarchy
Women in control
No society is a matriarchy
Matrilineal: trace descent through mothers kinship line; pass inheritance down from mothers
Matrilocal: husbands live near wives families
Power (Dyadic Vs Structural)
Power: capacity to determine others and ones own outcomes
Dyadic Power: capacity to choose intimate partners and relationships, and to control interactions and decisions occurring within relationships
Structural Power: influence embedded within the structures and institutions of a society or organization
Sex Ratio Theory
Ratio of men to women in a given environment influences the levels of dyadic power that sexes hold
When men outnumber women
Women hold more dyadic power
Greater autonomy
Men show more relationship and family commitment
Increased value on women’s traditional work
When women outnumber men
Men hold more dyadic power
Male promiscuity and lower commitment
Three types of power
Force: capacity to inflict physical/ psychological harm
- Domestic abuse
Recourse control: controlling the creation and distribution of desirable goods
- Men on average have more resource control
- gives power to dominant group
Cultural ideologies: sets of beliefs and assumptions about groups that explain and justify unequal hierarchies
- Androcentrism: man as universal
- Eurocentrism: ones own culture as universal
- Heterocentrism: heterosexuality as universal
Exception for resource control
Post - divorce child custody
- main gain sole custody only 10% of the time
- may be driven by stereotypes about women being better at parenting
- an ignored systematic sex bias about men
Privilege
Automatic, unearned advantage associated with membership in a dominant group
- Removes the barriers and stressors encountered regularly by members of subordinate groups
Double Jeopardy Hypothesis
More discrimination faced by Individulas belonging to two or more subordinate groups than those belonging to one
Intersectional invisibility hypothesis
Ignoring of experiences leads to doubly subordinated individuals feeling socially invisible
Non prototypical group members receive less notice and attention from others
Debate on sexism
Feminist psychologists view sexism and sex-based discrimination as two separate constructs, with sexism involving structural power differences
Hostile and benevolent ideologies as compliments
Work jointly to maintain and perpetuate gender hierarchy: men wield more power but simultaneously depend on women
- Hostile — those who seek status
- Benevolent — embrace traditional gender roles
- women’s feelings of resentment are soothed by flattery and chivalrous treatment
Ambivalent attitudes towards men mirror those toward women
- hostile — toward men who are veiwed as arrogant , power hungry, juvenile and predatory
- Benevolent — towards protectors and providers
Social dominance orientation
Extent to which Individulas believe that social groups are and should be equal versus hierarchical
Low in SDO — reject status hierarchies
High in SDO — inequality is right and fair “some people are just more worthy than others”
Social dominance theory
Subordinate groups internalize ideologies unfair to themselves as long as social hierarchy is perceived as stable and unchanging
System justification theory
People have powerful motivation to justify the sociopolitical system in which their lives are embedded
Gender discrimination
Unjust treatment based solely on ones sex, sexual orientation, or gender identity
- does not involve structural power imbalances by definition
- can be directed toward members of any social group, including dominant ones
- can take many forms
Overt gender discrimination: obvious and east
to recognize
General patterns of gender discrimination
Education: 32.1 million girls vs. 28.9 million boys of primary age out of school; slightly more girls not attending.
Significant gender gaps in the Middle East, Oceania, and sub-Saharan Africa; minimal gaps in East and Southeast Asia.
Impoverished girls most affected in Somalia, Niger, and Liberia.
Political Representation:
Women are underrepresented globally; only 24% in legislative bodies and 23% in the U.S. House.
Only three countries (Rwanda, Cuba, Bolivia) achieved 50%+ female representation in 2019.
Global Gender Gap Index:
Highest gender equality in Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland; lowest in Chad, Syria, Pakistan, Iraq, Yemen.
U.S. ranks 51st, comparable to Mozambique and Mexico.
Cognitive abilities
Mental skills such as paying attention, reasoning =, remembering, solving problems, speaking, interpreting speech
Lawrence summer
Discounted the role of discrimination at a 2005 Harvard conference on underrepresentation of women in sciences and engineering
Intelligence and the history
General capacity to understand ideas, think abstractly, solve problems and learn; not a specific type of knowledge or expertise
- Early 19th century: women were believed to be less intelligent
- End of 19th century: gender biases in brain measurement studies: women’s smaller brains used to explain their intellectual inferiority
Essentialism
Human differences arise from stable and integral qualities within Individulas
Intelligence quotient
Standardized score representing Individulas level of intelligence relative to same-age peers
- Early 1900s: first modern intelligence test developed by Binet and Simon in France
- American Lewis Terman demonstrated that boys and girls did not differ in intelligence scores
Eugenics
Control the genetic quality of the human population by preventing the reproduction those deemed genetically inferior
Misuse of the IQ test
- attempt at controlling genetic quality of human population
Limitation of binary comparisons
Overlooks Individuals who identify as neither female nor male (or both female and male)
Overlooks within sex differences in race, age, physical ability, sexual orientation, religion, and culture
General mental ability
Spearman: general mental ability
- Individulas performance on all cognitive tasks; identifiable though factor analysis
- someone with good reading comprehension skills, should also demonstrate good working memory and strong pattern recognition
Predicts important outcomes: such as academic performance, job performance, and health and longevity
Negligible sex differences
- do not consistently favour one particular sex
- most intelligence tests are gender neutral by design and thus nit reliable to examine sex differences in mental ability
Thunderstones + Maccoby and Jacklin
Thunderstones: Gave 60 different intelligence tests to a sample of eight graders
- factor analysis showed that the test items groups into 3 cultures of abilities
M and J: the sexes differed in verbal, quantitative and spatial abilities, soon became the dominant understanding in the feild
Verbal Performance
Small to moderate sex differences. If any; tend to favour girls and women
Vocabulary and verbal fluency
- girls learn to talk younger; vocabularies bloom earlier than boys do (small effect size)
- sex differences disappear by later childhood
- ability to generate words (verbal fluency): small sex difference favouring girls and women for verbal fluency
Reading
- girls outperform boys by the the widest margins in countries where girls have more educational and economic opportunities
Writing
- girls have a small advantage in most research
verbal reasoning:
- studies find either a small male advantage or no sex difference
- verbal reasoning tasks require mental transformation of verbal information
- men tend to outperform women in visual-spatial processing
Quantitative performance (math)
- No difference in overall math performance
- small sex differences in some specific math domains
Computational ability
- small female advantage for computation ability at ages 5-10 that disappeared by ages 15-18
Complex problems
- modest made advantage at ages 15-18 and 19-25
Quantitative performance
- overall analysis showed boys outperforming girls in most countries. This may be explained by gender equality of the culture: size of men’s advantage in math ability decreases as gender equality of a given nation increases
Visual Spatial Performance
Cognitive skills that help Individulas understand relationships between objects and navigate three-dimensional space
Size of the sex difference depends on the specific task used and age of target population
Male advantage in mental rotation ability
Spatial perception:
- ability to perceive, understand, and remember spatial relations between objects
- small male advantage in childhood that rises to moderate in adulthood
Spatial Visualization: ability to mentally manipulate spatial information
- small male advantage - not until teenage years
Spatial Location memory: remembering where objects are
- small sex differences favour women - inconsistent
Overall patterns of the 3 abilities
Most favour boys — this disappears in cultures that are more egalitarian
Greater male variability hypothesis
Men show greater variability in cognitive performance
Boys are more likely to receive diagnosis of learning disabilities and developmental disorders.
Biopsychosocial
Biological and environmental factors both mutually contribute to cognitive performance
Nature seems to play a stronger role in shaping verbal ability than shaping math ability
Education debt
Ongoing, cumulative lack of investment in education of low income and racial minority students
- substantially different educational experiences and outcomes for students based on race and income
Math Anxiety
Experienced by girls and women
Self reinforcing loop: anxiety produces lower math achievement and poor math performance produces anxiety; relates to lower achievement
Steryotype threat: anxiety die to risk of confirming a negative steryotype about ones group
Self Achievement motivation
Individulas need to meet goals and accomplish tasks
Some studies show that girls show higher intrinsic motivation while boys show greater work avoidance
Differences in response to evaluation
Women - more responsive to feedback, may approach situations as a way of gaining information about their abilities
Men - approach performance as opportunities to compete; self confident approach makes them relatively impervious to others’ evaluations of them
Can you identify male vs female wiring
Humans cant tell the difference but computers can
Cultural debates around word choice
Culture attitudes can change faster than language (creates a period of ambiguity)
Importance of word choice
- words have the power to shape social perceptions
- some think its unnecessary
- political correctness: the social norm, often viewed as taken to an extreme — avoid things that may offend, marginalize,or exclude members of subordinate
Whorfian linguistics relativity hypothesis
The structure of language determines the nature of the speakers thoughts and worldviews
Generic masculine
Using male-gendered terms to refer to mix-sexed groups
“Freshmen, brotherhood”
It can obscure meaning and refer girls and women invisible
Gendered features of language
Gender exclusive
- Mailman, policeman, fireman
Gender inclusive
- mail carrier, police officer, first year student
Diminutive
- Actress, authoress, stewardess girls to refer to adult women
Gender neutral, Higher status
- Actor, author, flight attendant, women
Grammatical gender
A type of classification system in certain languages in which most nouns are assigned a gender
Nations that have gendered languages have lower levels of gender equality
Diminutive
A form of word used to indicate a smaller, less powerful, or more familiar version (booklet, ducking, mommy and daddy)
Couverture
17th century
A common law that transferred a woman’s legal rights and property to her husband upon marriage
Language reinforcing gender steryotypes
Calling men condescending = position of relative power
Calling a women pushy = they attempt to assert more power than they have
Different cultures approach
The belief that boys and girls are socialized to use language so differently that they may as well come from different “cultures”, which leads to miscommunication
Affective vs Instrumental communication
Girls/women - develop an affective communication style that is emotionally expressive and oriented towards maintaining relationships
Boys/men - develop and instrumental communication style that is informational and oriented toward problem solving
Similarity as the rule
One one had researchers view differences as the rule and male-female miscommunication as inevitable, they also veiw similarity as the rule and find sparse evidence of substantive differences in male and female communication patterns
Who talks more
Women tend to interrupt more often in ways that build rapport
Men tend to interrupt more often in ways that dominate and control the conversation
Neither talk more
Gossip
Learning: enforcing a groups moral norms and enhancing social bonds (learning who loves whom). This can help people to form alliances and bond with others
Relational aggression: subtle aggression, usually committed when the target is not physically present, this is intended to harm the targets social relationships or status
Girls and women show more interest in gossip
Expressive vs assertive speech
Women: use more emotion words, women talked about friends and family more
Men: use profanity more frequently, use argumentative language more often
Code switching
The process by which bilingual and multilingual Individulas switch back and forth between languages and their different cultural meaning systems
For example transgender Individulas from Tonga, primarily speak Tongan but use English as a means of expressing resistance to their marginal identities
Smiling
Girls and women tend to smile more than boys and men do (medium effect size)
People smile for many reasons other than joy
Larger sex differences emerge when people engage in social interactions, feel social tension, or believe others to be observing them
Sex differences decrease when people occupy caretaker roles
Eye contact + visual dominance
Eye contact conveys rich meaning
Women - gaze more (highest amount of mutual eye contact),
Men - eye contact = a dominance display,
Visual dominance - men look at female partners when speaking to them more and look away more when listening to them
Personal space
The zone around people that provides as invisible buffer between the self and others
- intrusions make people uncomfortable
- Larger personal space = more dominant personality
Touch
Women touch more than male counterparts
Closeness and relationship play a role
Affiliative touch rereleases oxytocin — bonding and coordination
Not all meanings of touch are positive — harramment, objectify, demean, more powerful Individulas use touch to control
Gait
The way people walk
Women: swaying hips
Men: swaggering shoulders
Can be used as a cue to guess sexual orientation
Manspreading
Tendency for men to spread out and adopt an expansive posture while sitting, thus taking up more space
Women assume a restrictive body posture taking up less space
Both men and women benefit from man spreading
Emotion (display rules)
A complex, internal, subjective reaction that includes physiological, psychological, and behavioural components
Display rules: cultural specific norms that regulate how, when, and weather Individulas should express particular emotions
Women: positive emotions
Men: powerful emotions
Emotionality refers to how people feel emotions and also may refer to how openly or frequently people express them
Women: more affiliative and vulnerable emotions/ other oriented emotions and inward negative emotions
Men: anger and pride, outward-focused emotions
Teddy bear effect
Tendency for baby faced black man to have an advantage in seeking high-status positions because they do not activate stereotypes about black men as aggressive
Encoding and decoding
Encoding: the ability the communicate non verbally in a clear manner that others can interpret correctly
Decoding: the ability to read the nonverbal communications of others correctly
- Women have an advantage in both
- men suppress their nonverbal expressions while women amplify them
Perspectives on Sexuality
Labels were not popular until the 1800s
1886 - used the word homosezualitat to describe erotic desire toward the same sex and the word normalsexualitat to describe erotic desire toward the others sex
1892 - homosexual is an individual who’s general mental state is that of the opposite sex
1930s - homosexuality and heterosexuality were used widely
Sexual orientation
An enduring pattern of cognitive, motivational, and behavioural tendencies that shapes how people experience and express their sexuality
Sexual orientation as a physiological phenomenon
James keirnan defined same sex as sexuality in terms of an Individulas mental state, implying that sexual orientation is a psychological phenomenon
Sexual feelings and sexual experiences
Alfred Kinsey defined sexual orientation in terms of both sexual feelings and sexual experiences, thus adding a behavioural component
Five dimensions of sexual orientation
Herek lists five dimensions of sexual orientation
- Sexual attraction
- Sexual behaviour
- Personal identity
- Romantic relationships
- Community membership
Three primary dimensions of sexual orientation
- Sexual identity - the label that people use to describe their sexual orientation and the emotional reactions that they have to this label
- once people categorize themselves they incorporate the traits associated with the group into their self concept
- associate it with feelings - Motivation - feelings of desire and love, both of which consists of longing for and impulse to seek proximity to a given target
- love (attachment)
- sexual desire (lust)
- passionate love
- compassionate love
- pair bonding system - Sexual behaviour : Sexual behavior refers to actions or activities related to seeking or expressing sexual satisfaction, intimacy, and reproduction. It encompasses a wide range of behaviors that vary by culture, personal preference, social norms, and individual desires
- erotic act
- difficult to measure
- influences
- sexting
love Vs sexual desire (motivational)
Love: strong feelings of affection and attachment that go beyond mere warmth
Sexual desire: a wish or urge to engage in sexual activities
- characterized by physiological arousal and regulated by gonad hormones (estrogens and androgens) and neurotransmitters (oxytocin)
Passionate love vs compassionate love
Passionate: an early stage of love characterized by arousal, urgent longing, and exhilaration
- Dopamine: reward,
arousal, intentional control of voluntary movement
- Norepinephrine: “fight or flight” response and sympathetic arousal
Compassionate: a late stage of love characterized by calm feelings of warmth and emotional closeness
- Oxytocin and Vasopressin: neuropeptide related to intimacy and bonding
Pair bonding system
A system in which two adult members of a species remain bonded to one another for the purpose of raising offspring
An erotic act
Sexual behaviour includes anything that can be considered an erotic act including behvaiour performed alone, with others, and acts performed with others that are not physically present
Measuring sexual behvaiours
Difficult to measure because people consider it to be extremely private
Sexual double standards
Norms that allow greater sexual freedom in men than women
Sexting
Sending or receiving sexual text, images, or videos via mobile devices
Adults (18-30) reported to be having substantially higher rates compares to younger age groups (10-17)
Cognition vs Identity
Identity (Thought): reflects the internal experience of who a person feels drawn to, which forms the core of their sexual orientation.
Conditions (Acts): are the external expressions or behaviours associated with that orientation, which can vary and may or may not reflect a person’s core sexual identity.
Kaestle vs Diamond
K: (2019) four classes of sexual orientations among men and five classes among women based on identity, desire, and behaviour
D: (2005) subtypes that reflect fluidity versus stability of the identity rather than the sex or gender people are attracted to
Fluid vs stable (diamonds perspective)
Sexual Fluidity: Ability for sexual attractions to shift over time or with different contexts, especially common in women. Distinct from bisexuality, as it reflects changes rather than consistent multi-gender attraction.
Sexual Stability: A fixed pattern of attraction that remains constant. Common for some, but not universal.
Implications: Challenges rigid categories of sexual orientation, showing both fluidity and stability as natural, valid experiences
Sexual selectiveness
Common Belief: Men are seen as more open to casual sex, while women are thought to be selective in choosing partners.
Parental Investment Theory: Suggests women evolved to be selective due to higher investment in offspring (pregnancy and child-rearing).
Research Findings: Studies show both genders report similar attraction to partners in casual date scenarios, challenging stereotypes.
Social Norm Influence: Men’s greater sexual interest may stem from social norms where men typically initiate dating, not from biological tendencies.
Sexual assertiveness
Refers to peoples perceived control over thier sexual intimacy, with more sexually assertive people being more likely to initiate and communicate
Men - more assertive than women
Result from socially constructed differences in power
Lesbians
First same sex sexual contact is with a romantic partner
Differences in orgasm frequency (and the orgasm gap)
Orgasm & Satisfaction: Orgasm frequency is linked to greater sexual and relationship satisfaction across genders and orientations.
Orgasm Gap: Men experience orgasms more frequently than women during heterosexual encounters.
Studies: Consistently show men have higher orgasm rates, highlighting a “gap” where women report lower rates of orgasm compared to men in these settings.
Fluidity
The tendency for people sexual orientation or sexual identity to change across time
Women generally demonstrate more sexual fluidity than men do
The need to belong
The fundamental need for a small number of close relationships that offer frequent, positive interactions
Social networks vs friendships
Social network: the extended circle of people with whom Individulas regularly interact
- Larger social networks can indicate better social integration - positive psychological and physical health
- people of all sexes benefit from having more women in their social networks
Friendships: closeness an quality of he connection that people share
- women on average have more intimate relationships and social support
- men may avoid this because of male gender norms
Why do men have less intimate relationships
Social Norms: Men are often socialized to prioritize independence and self-reliance over emotional openness, which can limit intimacy.
Emotional Expression: Stereotypes discourage men from expressing vulnerability, impacting closeness in relationships.
Friendship Styles: Male friendships often focus on shared activities over emotional sharing, leading to less depth.
Fear of Judgment: Concerns about appearing “weak” or overly dependent can make men hesitant to form intimate connections.
Audience problems
The tendency for observers to assume that platonic friends are romantically involved; especially likely to occur in cross-sex friendships.
Cross sexed friends - pervasiveness of Heterocentrism
Romantic partners of people with cross sexed friends worry
Engaged heterosexual peoples tend to hold the most negative attitudes about cross sexed friendships
Hookups
Uncommitted sexual encounters
Chosen families
The first circles of LGBTQ+ Individulas that stand in for biological families and consist largely of individuals who understand the unique challenges of being LGBTQ+
Friends with benefits
Arrangements in which two friends have occasional, casual sexual interactions without the expectation of a romantic relationship
Can bring a unique set of complications especially when patterns do not explicitly define the nature of their friendships
Passionate friendships
Friendships characterized by intense longing for proximity, high levels of affection, and large amounts of physical touch
Qualities desired by men and women
Physical attractiveness: men value this more than women especially in short term relationships
Earning potential: women prioritize this more than men in long-term relationships, though this gap has narrowed over time
Lesbian preferences: place less emphasis on earning potential than straight women. Focused more on personality traits
Influence of race:
Black women vs white women: BW more likely to accept partners without steady jobs. WW prioritize physical appearance more over job status
Evolutionary vs sociocultural
Evolutionary: women’s tendency to emphasize resource provision and men’s tendency to emphasize attractiveness and childcare abilities enhanced ancestors reproductive success (evolved sex-linked traits)
Sociocultural: sex differnces in mate preferences as a product of social roles and labour divisions rather than genes
Partner homogamy
Universal tendency for people to bond and mate with others who are similar to them on demographic, personal background and physical attributes
- They are familiar
- validate worldviews
- reduce conflict
Factors that predict attraction
1.Similarity - things in common
2.Reciprocal liking - mutually felt interest
3.Familiarity - prolonged exposure to one another
4. Appearance - physical attractiveness
5. Personality - attractive personality
6. Social influences - approval or disapproval of the other by family or friends
7. Fulfilling needs - other fulfills needs
8. Arousal - strong physical reaction
9. Readiness - ready for a relationship
10. Isolation - time alone
11. Mysteriousness - intrigued by the other
12. Specific cues - personal importance for the self
Dating scripts
The stereotypes, cognitive representations of the sequences of events that take place during dates
- men should play the more powerful active role whole women should passively await male attention
Paternalistic chivalry
Men should be protective of women and treat them as if they are special and virtuous
M and W view this as favourable in dating (those who score higher on benevolent sexism endorse this norm more strongly)
Findings regarding love and romance
The findings are mixed
Women and men generally think of and experience love in similar ways — affectionate feeling of deep attachment
The sexes are more similar than different
Love based marriages
The practice of marrying for love originated in western Europe’s sometime between the 16th and 18th century’s and by the end of the 1700s, love-based marriage was he cultural ideal in western Europe and North America
Arranged marriages and autonomic marriages
Arranged: marriages in which third parties, such a parents or relatives, select potential marriage partners, with both partners having the right to refuse
Autonomous (love): marriages in which Individulas select their own partners
- Autonomous end in divorce more than arranged ones do
Polygamy
One husband and multiple wives
Polyandry
One wife and multiple husbands
Consensual non monogamy
Relationship arrangements in which all partners agree that it is acceptable to pursue non romantic relationships with others
Polyamory
Emotional and romantic connections with more than one other adult partner, with the knowledge and consent of all parties
Marriage benefit + sex differnces
Benefits of Happy Marriages:
- Enhance overall health and longevity.
- Higher quality marriages linked to better physical health and lower mortality rates for both heterosexual and same-sex couples.
Sex Differences:
- Men gain more positive health benefits from marriage than women.
- Unhappy marriages negatively impact women more severely, increasing risks of depression, alcoholism, immune issues, and cardiovascular diseases compared to happily married and never-married women.
Egalitarian Relationships
Members of western cultures tend to value egalitarian relationships in which partners share power and contribute to decision equally
Household labour divisions by couplet type
Lesbian couples report the most equal division of household labour, while married heterosexual couples with children report the least equal division of labour
Parenthood and relationship satisfaction
Declines in Satisfaction: Parenthood often leads to lower relationship satisfaction due to financial strain, loss of freedom, disrupted sleep, and role conflicts.
Not Universal: Some couples maintain or even increase satisfaction post-childbirth.
Adjustment: Satisfaction can rebound over time.
Positive Impact of Involvement: Active father involvement and coparenting enhance relationship satisfaction, especially for mothers.
