Gender is a social construct

Question 1

Parsons
Perspective
What role do women have in the family-what is the role based on?
What role do men have in the family- what is this based on?
How are these roles reinforced?
What is the benefit of these roles?

Answer 1

Functionalist
Women- expressive caring role which is natural due to their childbearing role- reinforced by socialisation
Men- instrumental role, protector and breadwinner- natural based on strength, reinforced by socialisation
These roles are functional for the society and family

Question 2

Feminists
What do they argue about gender identity?
What does this reinforce?

Answer 2

Gender identity is socially constructed by a patrirchal society (male dominated) which reinforces the stereotypes of how male and females should be

Question 3

Traditional gender identity

Question 4

Oakley
Perspective?
What are children socialised into?
Which agent of socialisation?
How many processes definition?
Example for each process?

Answer 4

feminist
Primary socialisation helps develop a sense of gender identity
Supports the theory that children are socialised into hegemonic feminity and masculinity.
Identified four ways in which children are socialised into gender roles by the family
Manipulation- encouraging or discouraging gender appropriate behaviour e.g. girls= helping, boys= fixing
Canalisation- parents directing children’s interests to certain toys and play e.g. girls= soft toys, boys= football
Verbal appellations parents using stereotypical masculine and feminine descriptions e.g. gentle girls and strong boys
Domestivc activities- Daughters have the cultural expectations of future responsibilities eg helping with household work

Question 5

McRobbie
Perspective?
Which agent of socialisation?
How do they create and reinforce gender identity (girls) ?
What was investigated?
What does she suggest (3)?
What did girls have?- separate from?

Answer 5

Feminist
The family may create and reinforce gender identity through official rules over girls and encouraging them to stay indoors.

Investigated the absence of girls in the study of youth subcultures and suggested that this was because research into youth subcultures ignored girls, participated less in subcultures and when they were a part of a subculture they played smaller roles compared to boys.
Suggested that girls have their own culture which is separate from the male dominated subcultures studied by male researchers

Question 6

McRobbie
Who was studied? (how many participants, class, age range, what did they participate in)
What did they face?-how?- what did this mean for their future?-destined for?
What did they participate in (cult)? Why?
What does this involve?
What was having a friendship with another girl seen as?

Answer 6

Studied 6 working class girls aged between 11-16 who attended a youth club
Found that they faced a restricted future e.g. given lack of qualifications and therefore limited job opportunities meaning they would not be able to support themselves financially. As a result they were destined for marriage as having a husband who had a well paying job or contributing to her own finances would mean that they would be able to live in a home and start a family.
In order to get away from the negativity from their restricted futures, the girls participated in the cult of feminity which improved their livelihood.
Cult of feminity involved
having a best friend
Strong emphasis on fashion and make up
It was seen as a stepping stone towards romance and marriage
Idolization of male pop stars (McRobbie suggested this was in preparation of having real boyfriends)

Question 7

McRobbie
Why is the cult of femininity missed by researchers into youth subcultures?
Where does the cult of feminity occur?-term?- what does this prevent?

Answer 7

The culture of feminity is missed by researchers into youth subcultures as it is not as public and spectacular as male dominated subcultures
The cult of feminity takes place in a private space- bedroom culture- A psace where girls can not be humiliated or harassed by boys

Question 8

Billington

Which agent of socialisation?- how does it create and reinforce gender identity?

Answer 8

The media may create and reinforce gender identity through presenting boys and girls in a stereotypical way
Feminity- subordinate
Masculinity- dominant

Question 9

Nakuamura
Perspective?
What are increasing more women doing?
What do women use the internet for?- when do hey use it?

Answer 9

Feminist
Suggest that the media is increasingly being used by women from a range of different backgrounds (ethnic and class) as a forum for support when they face discrimination and equality e.g. the ME TOO movement

Question 10

Ferguson
What did they conduct?-into?-counted?
What were the magazines based around?
How is excellence achieved? (4)

Answer 10

Conducted a content analysis of women’s magazines and counted the number of times a certain topic was covered
Magazines were based around a cult of feminity- excellence achieved through caring for others, family, marriage and appearance

Question 11

Mitosis and Browne
What agent of socialisation?- how does it create and reinforce gender identity? (2)
How do teachers treat male students
What does this cause and why?
What are teachers more likely to label male students as?
What culture are boys more likely to have? what does this devalue?
What did teachers reinforce?(3)-what did this socialise boys into?
What is there a distinct difference between?
Which study can This stud be linked to?

Answer 11

The education system may create and reinforce gender identities through the labelling of boys and girls differently by teachers and forming subcultures

Mitosis and Browne suggest that teachers are more lenient with male students which allows underachievement as they are not encouraged to improve.
Teachers are more likely to label boys as disruptive
Boys were more likely to have a culture of masculinity which did not value education which hindered their ability to achieve
These norms, values and anti learning culture that were reinforced by teachers in school socialised boys into their gender roles
There is a distinct difference made between the behaviour of boys and girls
Link to Wilis’ study into the lads

Question 12

Skelton
How may the education system also create and reinforce gender identity?
Where are gender differences perpetuated?
Examples?
How can gender differences be transmitted-example?

Answer 12

The education system may also create and reinforce gender identity through the hidden curriculum
-the hidden curriculum perpetuates gender differences in subject choices
-Boys and girls could be encouraged to choose different subjects through the hidden curriculum e.g. boys= maths, physics biology (more intellectual= higher pay),
Girls= health and social care, food technology (more maternal)
The hidden curriculum may transmit gender differences through uniforms- girls wearing skirts boys wearing trousers

Question 13

Alison Kelly
Sunject- packaged as?
How? (2)
How do boys dominate science classrooms?

Answer 13

Science is packages as a boys subject
Textbooks contain pictures which engage with the interests of boys such as footballs and cares as well as containing pictures of boys
Boys dominate science classrooms by shouting out answers and grabbing equipment first

Question 14

Anne Colley
What three things are subject choices influenced by?
Perception of gender roles- when are children more likely to choose stereotypical subjects?
Subject preferences- how is it determined- what subject are girls less likely to pick and why?
Learning environment- types of school? what type of school are girls more likely to pick maths and science subjects?

Answer 14

Subject choices are affected by three things
-Perception of gender roles (the extent to which a child has been socialised into masculine or feminine identity determines subject choices. Therefore those who have been socialised into strong masculine and feminine gender identities are more likely to choose stereotypical subjects)
-Subject preferences (determined by the tasks subject involves e.g. girls are less likely to choose IT as it is dominated by independent computer work)
Learning environment- subject choices are influenced by whether or not a school is single sex or mixed sex. Girls are more likely to choose maths and science subjects in single sex schools

Question 15

Willis
Mac an Ghail
What agent of socialisation?
How does it create and reinforce gender identity?

Answer 15

The workplace may create and reinforce gender identity through the workplace being a dominant source of a masculine identity

Willis- fathers who worked in manual labour would encourage their sons to go into manual labour as well and as a result it became a defining aspect of their identity

Mac an Ghail- Deindustrilaisation- Due to the changes in the labour market (decrease of manal labour jobs and more part time jobs which suited the lifestyle of women) working class men faced a crisis in masculinity as they could not gain traditional jobs, during this time in some working class amilies women became the main breadwinner

Question 16

Adkins
What agen of socialisation?
how are gender identities created and reinforced? (2)
What does horizontal segregation mean? example?
What does vertical segregation mean? example?

Answer 16

The workplace may create and reinforce gender identity through vertical and horizontal segregation

Horizontal segregation- men and women occupy specific jobs eg masculine= contruction, feminine= caretaker
Vertical segregation- men occupy top positions in the workplace and women are at the bottom of the hierarchy e.g. executive and managers more likely to be men even in female dominated professions like teaching

Question 17

Adkins
What is the labour market?
Which group was more likely to be hired in pub and hotel chains? - husband’s role - wife’s role?
How much more % was this group paid? what did the wife not receive?
What kind of segregation is this?
What does this reinforce about female identity?

Theme park name?
male employees?
female employees?
What kind of segregation is this?
What were female employees subject to?- were they helped?
What are women’s job based on? What does this reproduce (relationship)?

Answer 17

The labour market is gendered= jobs for men and jobs for women
Vertical segregation
Found that pubs and hotel chain employed married couples- husband employed as manager and te wife contributed to the running of the hotel or pub
Even though couples were paid 25% more the wife was not paid a salary in her own right.
This reinforces the norms and values of a passive sexualised female identity because it encourages cheap labour and the idea that women are ‘useful’ and sexual attractions for businesses (serving customers)

Horizontal segregation
At the Global Hotel and Fun Land
young males= high speed ride operatives
Wome= catering roles with a criteria of looking attractive
Female employers were subject to sexual harassment and senior staff did not intervene
Women’s jobs are both about sexuality and servicing foods or drinks or dealing with customers= this reproduces patriarchal relationships

Question 18

Connell
Perspective?
Emergence of?
Definitions?-studies?

Answer 18

Postmodernism
Emergence of different forms of masculinity
Hegemonic masculinity- dominant, traditional masculinity referred to by Oakley
Complicit Masculinity- Men and women should share roles in the family, can be referred to the emergence of The New Man discussed by Mort
Subordinate masculinity- less powerful, lower status e.g. homosexual masculinity discussed by McCornmack
Marginalised masculinity- men who had traditional jobs but now feel their masculinity is being threatened as their has been a decrease in manual labour jobs eg Crisis of masculinity discussed by Mac an Ghail

Question 19

Mort and Nixon
Year?
What was there a change in?
How?
What is becoming less significant?
Advert?- how could it be interpreted? what does this break?

Answer 19

Changing representations of masculinity in the media

Mid 1980s there was a change in male identity
-Increase production of men’s fashion magazines
Increased sales for fashion designer label clothes for men
-Change in consumption pattern e.g. more toiletries such as aftershave, hair gel and other perfumes
Men were spending more time on their appearance and practising self care
The difference between masculinity and femininity is becoming less significant

Nixon
Late 1985 Laundrette advert= cool and acceptable for men to take the same amount of care over their appearance as women (breaking gender stereotype)

Question 20

Jackson
Name of study?
what is gender? what does this mean?
What are people subjected to if they do not conform to socially ‘acceptable’ forms of masculinity and femininity?
Definition of ladettes
What kind of behaviour do they engage in?
Behaviours of the school girl ladettes?

Answer 20

Policing Ladettes
Gender is socially constuctued- ways of being male or female are learnt rather than being natural
Those who do not conform to what is socially ‘acceptable’ forms of masculinity and feminity are subjective to sanctions like verbal harassment, bullying and violence.

Ladette: female who behaves in a masculine way with typical male characteristics like risk taking, being disrespectful to authority, being loud and engaging in public drinking
They are portrayed by the media as hostile

School girl ladettes
-disruptive
disrespectful
smoking/drinking
argumentative

Teachers viewed male lads and female ladettes differently - they saw the behaviour of male lads as ‘harmless fun’ and therefore were more tolerant with their behaviour as it was expected of them to interrupt lessons, boys are ‘lovable rouges’. The same behaviour from girls is not tolerated