Gender feminism and religion Flashcards
v Evidence that women are more religious than men
O’Beirne (2004) (study of religiosity between men and women in the uk)
Found that across the major Uk religions :
-More women (83%) than men (74%) claimed some form of affiliation to a religious organization such as a church or denomination.
-This pattern was maintained across non-traditional religions such as Wicca and Spiritualism
The Pew Research center (2009) In the USA - evidence for women being more religious than men in the USA
-86% of women claimed a religious affiliation
-79% of men claimed a religious affiliation
Data on women believing more than men
-The data that exists suggests that women believe more strongly in things such as the existence of a God.
-Women are also more likely to pray by themselves and believe more in concepts such as life after death and heaven
Women participate more in religious activities
- Women have a greater involvement in religious activities such as attendance at services and clubs.
-Among Americans the Pew Research Center found that women are more likely to attend a church service, pray daily and have a certain belief in a personal God.
Why are women more religious than men?
Christianity promotes concepts of love and care that are more attractive to non - working women whose role is mainly one of childcare. They translate their general family role into religious behavior
The four main ways in which religion is patriarchal
1)Religious organisations
2)Laws and customs
3)Sacred texts
4)Places of worship
- Religious organisations
-Most religious organisations are male dominated in their leadership. Women continue to be excluded from key roles of power in their religions. For example Orthodox Jewish women cannot become rabbis. This exclusion exists despite the fact that women often participate more organised religion than men.
2.Laws and customs
-in most religions women often have fewer rights than men. The Roman Catholic Church for example has strict rules on abortion and contraception
-Women often have fewer rights than men regarding divorce and subject to more rules on what is seen as appropriate dress when praying.
3.Sacred texts
Sacred texts tend to give women subordinate roles. In most religions the Gods are male and women are portrayed in minor roles. All the apostles in the New Testament for example are men.
4.Places of worship
Some places of worship segregate men and women. Womens second-class status is often related to their female identities.
Jean Holm (1994) points out that ‘menstruation and childbirth are almost universally regarded as polluting’. In many traditions women are forbidden to enter sacred places or touch sacred objects during the menstruation period.’
E.g muslim women are not allowed to touch the Quran during menstruation.
Radical feminists views/perspectives on religion
-They argue that gender inequality is the central type of inequality in society and a radical transformation of society is necessary to remove gender inequalities.
They believe that small scale reform will not be enough to bring about change.
Simone de Beauvoir’s arguments on female oppression within religion
De Beauvoir (1953) argued that religion acts for
women in similar ways to those suggested by Marx for oppressed classes. Oppressors (men) can use religion to control the oppressed group (women).
Religion also serves as a way of compensating
women for their second-class status. The fear of God serves to keep women in a subordinate position.
Religion gives women the idea that they will be compensated for their sufferings on earth by equality in heaven. This helps to maintain a status quo in which women and men are
unequal.
Patriarchal religion replacement with non-patriarchal religions e.g Goddess religion
Some sociologists argue that religion is patriarchal but do not believe that religion needs to be abolished. Instead, they
argue that patriarchal religions need to be replaced with feminist religion. In particular, they need to be replaced with Goddess religion.
-Daly (1973) argued that existing religions are
based on an ‘inadequate God’, and that women are oppressed in several ways:
1. Religions such as Christianity have often proclaimed that the subordination of women is God’s will.
2.God is portrayed as a man and as Father. ‘One-sex symbolism’ of this sort alienates women and places them in an inferior position to men.
-Woodhead (2007) ; describes the Goddess feminist movement as seeking ‘to honour the “divine feminine’ in their own lives and in society’. It is committed to the empowerment of women.
Radical feminist approaches which emphasise the importance of Goddess religion have demonstrated that, while a belief in God can help to maintain patriarchy, non-patriarchal religions are possible.
Evaluation of Radical feminism
- Critics argue that much radical feminism tends to generalise about religion and to see all religions as equally patriarchal. However, some liberal feminists have identified certain religions, such as Quakerism, that are not clearly or strongly patriarchal.
- Radical feminists also tend to ignore evidence that progress has been made and that aspects of patriarchal ideology within religion have been successfully challenged
Nawal el Saadawi (1980) - does not see religion as the underlying cause of oppression.
She examines the importance of religion in creating and perpetuating oppression but does not see religion itself as the main underlying cause of oppression.
Instead, she sees it as just one aspect of a wider
patriarchal system which needs to be overthrown.
She denies that the oppression of women is directly caused by religion in general, or by Islam in particular She notes that oppressive practices e.g female circumcision have often been attributed to the influence of Islam. However, female circumcision has been practised in a considerable number of countries, not all of them Islamic. In her view, genuine religious beliefs tend to be opposed to any such practices and aim at ‘truth, equality, justice, love and a healthy wholesome life for all people, whether men or women’
-> To El Saadawi, female oppression is not
essentially due to religion but to patriarchy. Men have often distorted religion to serve their own interests, to help justify or legitimate the oppression of women.
Liberal feminists perspective on religion
Liberal feminists, regarded existing religions as patriarchal and focus more on reforming religions in order to remove patriarchal elements from them.
In their view, religion and feminism are compatible.
Examples of the inequalities between men and women in several religions according to Holm
Holm (1994) argues that, while the classical
teachings of many religions have stressed equality between men and women, in practice they have usually been far from equal.
Examples of inequality ;
-> In Japanese folk religions, for example, women are responsible for organising public rituals but only men can take part in the public performances.
-> In Chinese popular religion, women are associated with Yin and men with Yang. However, Yang spirits are more important
and powerful.
-> In Buddhism, both men and women
can have a religious role, as monks and nuns,
respectively. However, all monks are seen as senior to all nuns.
-> in Christianity, it is still impossible for women to take the highest positions in church hierarchy
Argument that the patriarchal oppression of women in religion is not universal
Some religions are generally patriarchal but aspects of them can still provide significant opportunities for women.
For example,
- Leila Badawi (1994) noted
aspects of Islam that are positive for women. Unlike Christian women, Muslim women keep their own family name when they get married. - According to Alexandra Wright (1994), some Christian religions, particularly Quakerism, have never been oppressive to women. For example, Quakers believe in totally democratic organisational structures and value men and women’s contribution to the day-to-day running of the religion in equal measure.
Evaluation of Liberal feminism
- Although there is evidence of some progress
as a result of liberal feminism, the extent of this
progress is open to question. Radical feminists
tend to believe that patriarchy is so embedded
within existing religions that reform will never
be enough to significantly improve the position
of women within religion and within society
in general. - Some feminists, while not rejecting liberal
feminism altogether, believe that it has had only
a limited impact. Shih (2010) refers to research
which suggests that, even with increasing
numbers of women ordained within the Church of England, relatively little has changed and sexist attitudes within the Church remain strong.
Describe two ways in which religion can be seen as oppressive for women
Evidence that religion is not oppressive - Hijab/veiling
Helen Watson (1994) argues that the veiling of
Islamic women can be interpreted as beneficial
to them.
For example, Nadia, a second-generation
British-Asian woman studying medicine at
university, actively chose to start wearing a veil
when she was 16. She was proud of her religion
and wanted others to know that she was Muslim.
She felt that “lt is liberating to have the freedom
of movement and to be able to communicate with people without being on show. It’s what you say that’s important, not what you look like.’ She found that, far from making her invisible, wearing a veil made her stand out, yet it also helped her to avoid unwanted comments and attention from men
‘Religion contributes to gender inequality.’ Evaluate this view
For:
* Feminist sociologists claim to have identified close links between religion and patriarchy, with religious teachings representing females in a
negative way and emphasising their subordination to male figures, such as fathers and husbands.
- Women are encouraged to follow traditional gender role in society in many religions.
- There is low involvement of women in positions of authority in most religious organisations.
- Religion acts as a way of compensating women for their second-class status (De Beauvoir).
- Some women report that involvement in religion has damaged their self esteem and sense of freedom; they feel oppressed by the exercise of religious authority.
- There are many examples of religious support for opposing causes that feminists have campaigned for, such as abortion rights, civil marriage, and freedom from arranged marriages.
Against :
* The importance of goddess religion demonstrates that non-patriarchal religions are possible.
- Danger of over-generalising as the position of women in religion varies greatly between different religious organisations. Some religions may oppose rather than support male domination.
- Some religions are responding positively to calls for women to have greater opportunity to access positions of authority, including through
ordination. - Many women with religious affiliations may support some or all of the religious values that feminists see as patriarchal and oppressive.
- Feminist theorists have often failed to back up their views with detailed research.
- Women may be able to find space within, or use, apparently patriarchal religions to further their own interests.
- The secularisation thesis suggests that religion has little social significance today and so the influence of religion in contributing to gender inequality and the oppression of women may be very limited for the majority of the female population.
Women have little power within religious organisations. Evaluate this view [35]
For:
. Evidence to show that women are still lowly represented in positions of authority within most religious organisations.
. Examples of religious teachings that continue to support a patriarchal worldview.
. The promotion of some women within religious organisations may be a form of tokenism that conceals ongoing underlying patriarchy in these organisations.
. Ongoing religious support for conservative values that emphasise traditional gender roles for women.
. Examples of religious support for opposing causes that feminists have campaigned for, such as abortion rights, civil marriage, and freedom
from arranged marriages.
Against
. Some religions are responding positively to calls for women to have greater opportunity to access positions of authority, including through
ordination.
. The number of women in positions of authority in many religions is increasing rapidly.
Women are now the largest worship group in many religions.
- The extent of patriarchy in religion can be questioned. For example, many women with religious affiliations may support some or all of the religious values that feminists see as patriarchal.
.Women are now the largest worship group in many religions.
. The extent of patriarchy in religion can be questioned. For example,many women with religious affiliations may support some or all of the religious values that feminists see as patriarchal.
Some religions have always been further forward than others in supporting gender equality; for example, Sikhism and Quakerism
. Some religions are generally patriarchal, but aspects of them can still provide significant opportunities for women. Hence, there is a danger of over-generalising as the position of women in religion varies greatly between different religious organisations.
