Gender Differences in education

Question 1

Evidence to suggest there is now a real problem of boys under-achieveing

Answer 1

• Boys lag behind from Year One in all skill including literacy
• This gap continues through KS1-3
• Girls outperform boys at GCSE (10% more girls than boys gain 5+ A*- C grades)
• Post-16 a higher proportion of girls gain top grades- though the gap narrows at this point
• This ‘gender gap’ is not confined to Britain with most Western countries reporting a similar trend

Question 2

What are the problems with the idea of a gender gap?

Answer 2

• The gender gap is not the same in all subjects: In GCSE science, boys do slightly better than girls, In GCSE maths, girls and boys perform similarly.
• The gender gap is not the same at all levels of education- disproportionately more males choose science and ICT in higher education
• The gender gap is affected by social class and ethnicity
• The gender gap is not necessarily translated into better jobs/careers for women
• The gender gap is happening within the context of improving exam results for both males and females

Question 3

What are the four external factors for the ‘gender gap’?

Answer 3

• Feminism
• Changes to employment
• Changing ambitions
• Changes to family structure

Question 4

Explain how feminism has had an effect on the gender gap and girl’s achievement

Answer 4

This social movement to improve female opportunities has had a number of effects. It has raised awareness and female aspirations, campaigned for changes in laws relating to pay, employment and rights, challenged media stereotyping etc.

Question 5

Explain how changes in employment has had an effect on the gender gap and girl’s achievement

Answer 5

Equal pay and anti-discrimination laws have improved women’s employment opportunities as have changes to the occupational structure moving it away from traditional heavy industry and towards the service sector. These open up opportunities for women to develop careers similar to those of men.

Question 6

Explain how changing ambitions has had an impact on the gender gap and girl’s achievement

Answer 6

Research in the 1970s (Sharpe) showed girls to have limited career aspirations- these came behind family and marriage. This was changing in the 1980s and 1990s and now there is far less focus on domestic futures and much more on a career. This rising expectation of economic and social independence links to the need to obtain educational qualifications. It also means that there is a greater range of female role models for girls in business.

Question 7

Explain how changes to the family structure has had an impact on the gender gap and girl’s achievement

Answer 7

There have been many important changes in family structure- smaller families (so less time tied to a domestic context), increase in divorce (so women need to be more self-sufficient) and increased number of lone-parent families (mainly headed by a women who would need to take on the role as the main money maker of the family).

Question 8

What are the five internal factors for the ‘gender gap’?

Answer 8

• Educational policies to help girls
• Coursework favouring girls
• National Curriculum
• Selection and league tables
• Gender role models in school

Question 9

Explain how Educational policies have had and impact on the gender gap and girl’s achievement

Answer 9

Over the last thirty or so years there have been some attempts to improve the academic performance of girls. GIST (Girls Into Science and Technology), the National curriculum, OFSTED guidelines, anti-sexism training etc. have all tried to raise the profile of women in education. Jo Boaler says that these policies have removed many of the barriers that hindered girl’s achievement

Question 10

Explain how Coursework has had and impact on the gender gap and girl’s achievement

Answer 10

The introduction of coursework in many subjects is often thought to have helped female students achieve higher grades.

Question 11

Which sociologists conclude that girls are more successful in coursework?

Answer 11

Eirene Mitsos and Ken Browne (1998)

Question 12

What do Eirene Mitsos and Ken Browne conclude are the reasons girls are more successful in coursework?

Answer 12

Because they:

• are more conscientious and better organised than boys
• Spend more time on their work
• Take more care with the way it is presented
• Are better at meeting deadlines
• Bring the right equipment and materials to lessons

Question 13

Explain how selection and league tables has had an impact on the gender gap and girl’s achievement

Answer 13

Because of their better exam results, girls are more valuable to schools as they can boost the school league table position. Girls benefit from this too as they are therefore more likely to attend a successful school

Question 14

Which sociologist gave an explanation as to why boys were less attractive to schools?

Answer 14

Roger Slee (1998)

Question 15

According to Roger Slee, why are boys less attractive to schools?

Answer 15

Because they are more likely to suffer form behavioural difficulties and are four times more likely to be excluded.

Question 16

Explain how Gender role models in schools have had an effect on the gender gap and girl’s achievement

Answer 16

There are an increasing number headteachers and senior staff in secondary schools.
Women teachers are likely to be particularly important role models as far as girl’s educational achievement is concerned since, to become a teacher, the individual must undertake a lengthy and successful education herself.

Question 17

Describe an evaluation of the impact of feminism

Answer 17

It is difficult to estimate the impact of feminism as it is so general

Question 18

Explain what is meant when sociologists point out that not all girls achieve better

Answer 18

There are major class differences in girls’ ambitions with many working-class girls continuing to focus more on family and home than on an external career. This is party to do with family values and partly the result of limited work opportunities

Question 19

Describe an evaluation of Changes in employment

Answer 19

Mac an Ghaill and others point out that women still face disadvantages in employment through the ‘glass ceiling’ etc. despite their better educational performance.

Question 20

Describe an evaluation of Equal opportunities policies

Answer 20

They have been fairly patchy and their impact has been difficult to estimate

Question 21

Describe a evaluation of GCSE and coursework

Answer 21

Although girls outperform boys in coursework, they also outperform them in examinations as well.

Question 22

What do Radical Feminists argue

Answer 22

That schools are still patriarchal and although girls’ results are better than boys’, their experience of sexism in school is damaging to them

Question 23

What are five factors that sociologists argue may contribute to boys’ underachievement?

Answer 23

• Poorer employment prospects for males
• Male overconfidence
• ‘Men behaving badly’ imagery/ anti-school culture
• Male Literacy problems
• Feminisation of education

Question 24

Explain how poorer employment prospects for men have contributed to boy’s underachievement in school

Answer 24

Changes in the structure of employment have drastically reduced the number of manual jobs. Globalisation means that these are now located in China and the Pacific rim countries. This may mean that boys have lower expectations of a job/career and consequently see little reason to achieve in education.

Question 25

Explain how Male overconfidence has contributed to boy’s underachievement in school

Answer 25

Boys tend to be over-confident in their own abilities and maintain unrealistically high expectations. Consequently, they leave it too late to do the necessary work

Question 26

Explain how anti-school subculture has contributed to boys underachievement

Answer 26

Some sociologists have suggested that male socialisation leaves boys vulnerable to acting out the ‘men behaving badly’ image- something that places little value on education. Doing schoolwork is seen as not being masculine, especially in working-class subcultures. Boys who do work get bullied.

Question 27

Explain how Male Literacy problems have contributed to boy’s underachievement

Answer 27

According to the DCSF (2007) the gender gap is mainly the result of boy’s poorer literacy and language skills. Boys read and write less than girls. Poorer levels of male literacy can restrict the educational performance of boys across many subjects. Parents may not read as much to boys, their leisure pursuits may not involve much reading or writing , or these activities may be perceived as feminine.

Question 28

Which sociologist claimed that education has become feminised?

Answer 28

Tony Sewell

Question 29

What did Tony Sewell claim about the feminisation of education?

Answer 29

Claimed that boys fall behind because education has become feminised. That is, schools do not nurture ‘masculine’ traits such as competitiveness and leadership. Instead, they celebrate qualities more closely associated with girls, such as methodical working and and attentiveness in class

Question 30

Describe and evaluation of poorer employment prospects for males

Answer 30

We should note that the decline has largely been in manual working-class jobs that require few if any qualifications. Thus it seems unlikely that the disappearance of such jobs would have much impact on boy’s motivation to obtain qualifications.

Question 31

Which sociologist looked into the types of language teachers use?

Answer 31

Barbara Read (2008)

Question 32

What were the two type of language, or ‘discourse’, did Read identify?

Answer 32

• A disciplinarian discourse

- A Liberal discourse

Question 33

Describe a disciplinarian discourse

Answer 33

The teacher’s authority is made explicit and visible. For example, through shouting.

Question 34

Describe a Liberal discourse

Answer 34

The teacher’s authority is implicit and invisible. This child-centred discourse involves ‘pseudo-adultification’: the teacher speaks to the pupil as if they were an adult and expects them to kind, sensible and respectful of the teacher.

Question 35

What did Read find in her study?

Answer 35

Most teachers (male and female) used the ‘masculine’ disciplinarian discourse.

Question 36

What were the two conclusions Read drew from her study?

Answer 36

• The fact that most teachers favoured a ‘masculine’ disciplinarian discourse of control disproves the claim that the culture of school has become feminised, as Swell and others argue
• The fact that female teachers were just as likely as males to use ‘masculine’ discourse to control pupil’s behaviour disproves the claim that only male teachers can provide the stricter classroom culture in which boys are said to thrive on.

Question 37

What effect did the National Curriculum have of subject choice?

Answer 37

• The introduction of the National Curriculum has reduced the amount of choice pupils have up to the age of 16
• In post-16 education, gender still seems to affect subject choice. This is particularly true of vocational choices. Girls still disproportionately choose health and social care course, English, etc. whilst boys have a greater tendency to choose ICT, technology, science, etc.

Question 38

Name the nine general reasons girls are less likely to take science, technology or mathematics courses in post-19 education

Answer 38

• Teacher direction
• Vocational courses
• Ideas about careers
• Parental Influence
• Early gender role socialisation
• Female experience of male domination
• Male teachers in science
• The way a subject is taught
• Gender domains

Question 39

Explain Teacher direction as an explanation for why girls are less likely to take science, technology or mathematics courses in post-16 education

Answer 39

Teacher direction an careers advice may channel girls away from these traditionally male subjects.

Question 40

Explain vocational courses as an explanation for why girls are less likely to take science, technology or mathematics courses in post-16 education

Answer 40

Vocational courses tend to fall into ‘traditionally male’ and ‘traditionally female’ categories

Question 41

Explain Ideas about careers as an explanation for why girls are less likely to take science, technology or mathematics courses in post-16 education

Answer 41

Choice of subjects at 16 is strongly influenced by ideas about careers. Women are still over-represented in caring professions. This reality of employment prospects may continue to exert some influence over subject choice at 16

Question 42

Explain parental Influence as an explanation for why girls are less likely to take science, technology or mathematics courses in post-16 education

Answer 42

Some parental influence may reinforce traditional gender-based choice of subjects.

Question 43

Explain early gender role socialisation as an explanation for why girls are less likely to take science, technology or mathematics courses in post-16 education

Answer 43

Early gender role socialisation takes different forms for males and females- toys, play patterns, parental expectations etc. may all shape the future career intentions of girls and boys.

Question 44

Explain female experiences of male domination as an explanation for why girls are less likely to take science, technology or mathematics courses in post-16 education

Answer 44

Female experience of male domination of the classroom e.g. access to equipment and resources, may discourage girls from taking these subjects after GCSE.

Question 45

Explain male teachers in science as an explanation for why girls are less likely to take science, technology or mathematics courses in post-16 education

Answer 45

There are disproportionately more male teachers of science and technology. The absence of female role models may discourage girls from taking these subjects

Question 46

Describe what Colley suggested as an explanation for why girls are less likely to take science, technology or mathematics courses in post-16 education

Answer 46

Suggested that the way a subject is taught may have a major impact on which gender identities that most identify with it. ICT is often taught in ways that girls find less confident.

Question 47

Explain gender domains as an explanation for why girls are less likely to take science, technology or mathematics courses in post-16 education

Answer 47

A lot depends on how a subject is perceived. For example, music was seen as a female subject but recently, more boys have opted for it. This might reflect the increasing use of computer technology in music- making it more ‘masculine’

Question 48

Explain how access to limited classroom resources is an example of how males dominate the classroom

Answer 48

Male students often try to take the most/best equipment in science/technology lessons. Kelly Identified this as one reason for the lower level of female involvement in science in schools.

Question 49

Explain how intimidating female pupils is an example of how males dominate the classroom

Answer 49

Intimidating female pupils through verbal/body language during classroom interaction. Males often interrupt or ignore female students during class discussions/question and answer sessions

Question 50

Explain how the ‘Male Gaze’ is an example of how males dominate the classroom

Answer 50

Girls are assessed as sexual objects- devalued and objectified. This links to verbal abuse e.g. the use of ‘gay’ and ‘lezza’ to control other pupil’s behaviour

Question 51

Explain how disproportionate attention from teachers is an example of how males dominate the classroom

Answer 51

Claiming disproportionate attention from teachers through either negative or positive classroom behaviours. Teacher time is often spent dealing with male misbehaviour, leaving less time to be spent with female pupils.

Question 52

Explain how double standards is an example of how males dominate the classroom

Answer 52

Double standards about sexuality exist outside the classroom. Sexually active boys are viewed positively, sexually negative girls are seen negatively.

Question 53

Explain how male peer groups is an example of how males dominate the classroom

Answer 53

Males also police each other through their peer group. Working-class boys macho culture rejected boys who worked at school. Some middle-class boys cultivated an image of achieving but apparently doing this without any effort.

Question 54

How might teachers reinforce male domination of the classroom?

Answer 54

• Teachers may accept male domination of the classroom or even actively reinforce male domination
• Teachers using sexist language
• Using gender-specific examples e.g. football analogies. Kelly (1987) saw this as a reason why science was often seen as a masculine subject.
• Patronising female students
• Tolerating male behaviour that intrudes on classroom interaction.

Question 55

Describe a ‘patriarchal’ curriculum

Answer 55

The content of the formal curriculum often reflects male concerns. For example, in History women are largely invisible, Physical Education is often divided into male and female sporting activities and as research by Lobbers and others has shown, some reading schemes (particularly older ones) present very traditional stereotypes of males and females.

Question 56

Describe Best’s research in the 1990s

Answer 56

Suggested that although some textbooks had become more balanced in their representation of men and women, there was still some disparity in the images presented. Limited resources often means that schools retain textbooks and other materials that have these more traditional images.

Question 57

How may the ‘hidden curriculum’ affect female pupils?

Answer 57

• It may take the form of teachers spending less time with with female students- as Spencer found
• Alternatively, the ‘hidden curriculum’ might affect female students in the negative references teachers make about women or the use of male-cantered language and examples
• Some teachers may accept and tacitly encourage male domination of the classroom in terms of access to resources, control of discussions etc.
• Lower teacher expectations of girl’s academic performance.

Question 58

Why do working-class girls underachieve?

Answer 58

• Working-class girls experience a conflict between their home/per group values and those of the school
• They get ‘symbolic capital’ from their peers by creating for themselves a glamorous identity, spending a lot of money on make-up, hairstyles and particular kinds of clothing. They place great store in having a boyfriend.
• All this brings them into conflict with the school. They are seen as being distracted from schoolwork by spending too much time on developing this identity, being with a boyfriend rather than working etc.
• Therefore working-class girls have a choice- follow their peer group or accept the values of the school.
• Their dilemma causes them to underachieve.
• Even working-class girls who do succeed at school then find it difficult to leave their home culture behind. So they tend either not to go to university or apply to local universities so they can live at home. Either way, their career options continue to be limited.