Gender Differences In Achievement

Question 1

What are the external factors that affect gender differences in achievement?

Answer 1

• the impact of feminism
• change in the family
• changes in women’s employment
• girls’ changing ambitions

Question 2

How does the impact of feminism affect gender differences in achievement?

Answer 2

Feminism has encouraged women to fight for equal rights. Feminism has challenged the stereotypes of a women’s role as wife and mother. Women are encouraged today, not to see themselves as inferior to men but as equal. More broadly, feminism has raised women’s expectations and self-esteem. All of these changes have encouraged girls to value education highly and work hard.

Question 3

How do changes in the family affect gender differences in achievement?

Answer 3

There have been major changes in the family since 1970s. These include:

• an increase in the divorce rate
• an increase in cohabitation and a decrease in the number of first marriages
• smaller families
• an increase in the number of lone-parent families

Girls are more likely to see lone-mothers which inspires them to work hard at school because they know that one day they may need to become financially independent.

Increases in the divorce rate may suggest to girls that it is unwise to rely on a husband to be their provider.

Question 4

How do changes in women’s employment affect gender differences in achievement?

Answer 4

There are more jobs available for women particularly in the service sector. The 1970 Equal Pay Act: makes it illegal to pay one sex more than another for work of equal value.

Since 1975, the pay gap between men and women has halved from 30% to 15%.

The proportion of women in employment has risen from 53% in 1972 to 61% in 2013. The growth of the service sector and flexible part-time work has offered opportunities for women. There are more women in employment now than there ever was. Since 2010 it’s increased by 71,000 in 2019. Some women are now breaking through the ‘glass ceiling’ - the invisible barrier that keeps them out of high level professional and managerial jobs.

Question 5

How do girls’ changing ambitions affect gender differences in achievement?

Answer 5

Research bu Sue Sharpe shows that girls’ ambitions changed from 1970s to 1990s. In 1974, the girls had low aspirations believing educational success was in feminine and that appearing to be ambitious would be considered unattractive. They gave their priorities as ‘love, marriage, husbands, children, jobs and careers, more or less in that order’.

By the 1990s, girls’ ambitions and reverse. Sharpe found that girls were now more likely to see their future as an independent woman with a career rather than as dependent on their husband and his income.

In the 1970s girls wanted to leave school as soon as possible. There were 30 kinds of jobs they wanted to do but a 1/4 of these revolved around office work. It included stuff like air hostess, receptionists etc.

Beck and Beck argue that there’s been a trend towards individualisation in modern society where independence is valued much more strongly than in the past. A career is much more important than in the past as well as economic self-sufficiency. Women/girls wanted a professional career where they could support themselves. Clearly, these aspirations require educational qualifications.

Question 6

What are the internal factors that affect gender differences in achievement?

Answer 6

• equal opportunities policy
• positive role models in schools
• GCSE and coursework
• teacher attention
• challenging stereotypes in the curriculum
• selection and league tables

Question 7

How does the equal opportunities policies affect gender differences in achievement?

Answer 7

After 1988, policy makers became more aware of gender issues and teachers became more sensitive to the need to avoid stereotyping. Boys and girls should be entitled to the same opportunities e.g. games.

Two well known policies in this area were GIST (Girls into science and technology) and WISE (women into science and engineering). They encouraged girls to pursue careers in these non-traditional areas.

The introduction of the National Curriculum in 1988 removed one source of gender inequality by making girls and boys study mostly the same subjects, which was often not the case previously.

Question 8

How do positive role models in schools affect gender differences in achievement?

Answer 8

There has been an increase in the proportion of female teachers and heads. These women in senior positions may act as role models for girls, showing them women can achieve positions of importance and giving them non-traditional goals to aim for.

Women teachers are likely to be particularly importance because to become a teacher, the individual must undertake a lengthy and successful education herself,

Question 9

How does GCSE and Coursework affect gender differences in achievement?

Answer 9

Some sociologists argue that changes in the way pupils are assess have favoured girls and disadvantaged boys,

Stephen Gorard found that the gender gap in achievement was fairly constant from 1975 until 1989, when it increased sharply. This was the year in which GCSE was introduced bringing with it coursework as a major part of nearly all subjects. Gorard concludes that the gender gap in achievement is a “product of the changed system of assessment rather than any more general failing of boys”

Mitsos and Browne supports this view concluding that girls are more successful in coursework because the are more conscientious and better organised than boys. Girls:

• spend more time on their work
• take more care with the way it is presented
• are better at meeting deadlines
• bring the right equipment and materials to lessons

Along with GCSE has come the greater use of oral exams. This is also said to benefit girls because of their generally better developed language skills. Sociologists argue that these characteristics and skills are the result of early gender role socialisation in the family. For example, girls are more likely to be encouraged to be neat, tidy and patient. These qualities become an advantage in today’s assessment system, helping girls achieve greater success than boys.

Janette Elwood argues that it’s unlikely to be the only cause of the gender gap because exams have more influence than coursework on final grades.

Question 10

How does teacher attention affect gender differences in achievement?

Answer 10

When Jane and Peter French analysed classroom interaction, they found that boys received more attention because they attracted more reprimands.

Becky Francis also found that while boys got more attention, they were disciplined more harshly and felt licked on by teachers, who tended to have lower expectations of them.

Swann found that boys dominate in whole class discussion, whereas girls prefer pair-work and group-work and are better at listening and cooperating. When working in groups, girls’ speech involves turn taking, and not the hostile interruptions that often characterise boys’ speech.

This may explain why teachers respond more positively to girls, whom they see as cooperative. This may lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy girls’ self-esteem and raise their achievement.

Question 11

How does challenging stereotypes in the curriculum affect gender differences in achievement?

Answer 11

Research in the 1970s and 80s found that reading schemes portrayed women mainly as housewives and mothers, that physics books showed them as frightened by science, and that maths books depicted boys as more inventive.

Gaby Weiner argues that since the 198”s teachers have challenged such stereotypes. Sexist images have been removed fro, learning materials which may have helped to raise girls’ achievement by presenting them with more positive images of what women can do.

Question 12

How does selection and league tables?

Answer 12

Marketisation policies have created a more competitive climate in which schools see girls as desirable recruits because they achieve better exam results.

David Jackson notes that the introduction of exam league tables has improved opportunities for girls: high-achieving girls are attractive to schools, whereas low achieving boys are not. This tends to create a self-fulfilling prophecy - because girls are more likely to be recruited by good schools, they are more likely to do well.

Roger Slee argues that boys are less attractive to schools because they are more likely to suffer from behavioural difficulties and are four times likely to be excluded.

As a result, boys may be seems as ‘liability students’ - obstacles to the school improving its league table scores. They gave the school a ‘rough, tough’ image that deters high-achieving girls form applying.

Question 13

What are the two views of girls achievement?

Answer 13

Liberal feminists celebrate the progress made so far in improving achievement. They believe that further progress will be made by the continuing development of equal opportunities policies, encouraging positive role models and overcoming sexist attitudes and stereotypes.

This is similar to the functionalist view that education is a meritocracy where all individuals, regardless of gender, ethnicity or class, are given an equal opportunity to achieve.

Radical feminists take a more critical view. While they recognise that girls are achieving more, they emphasise that the system remain patriarchal and conveys the clear message that it is till a man’s world. For example:

• sexual harassment of girls continues at school
• education still limits girls’ subject choices and career options
• although there are now more female head teachers, male teachers are still more likely to become heads of secondary schools
• women are under-represented in many areas of the curriculum. For example, their contribution to history is largely ignored. Weinar describes the secondary school history curriculum as a ‘woman-free zone’.

Question 14

Identity, class and girls achievement - Symbolic Capital

Answer 14

According to feminists such as Louise Archer one reason for class differences in girls’ achievement, is the conflict between working class girls’ feminine identities and the values of the school.

In her study of WC girls, Archer said by performing their WC identities girls gained symbolic capital from their peers. However, this brought them into conflict with school preventing them from acquiring educational capital (qualifications) and economic capital (MC careers).

Archer identified several strategies that the girls followed for creating a valued sense of self. These included adopting a hyper-heterosexual feminine identity, having a boyfriend and ‘being loud’.

Question 15

How does the development of hyper-heterosexual feminine identities affect achievement?

Answer 15

Girls achieved status from their female peer group by spending a lot of money and time on their appearance. They combined black urban American styles with unisex sportswear and ‘sexy’ clothes, make-up and hairstyles.

However it brought them into conflict with school e.g. they were punished for wearing the wrong clothes - jewellery, make-up etc. Teachers saw this preoccupation with appearance as a distraction from education.

The school shows the girls symbolic violence and regards them and their culture as ‘not one of us’ and not worthy of respect. Regard them as incapable of educational success.

Question 16

How does boyfriends affect achievement?

Answer 16

Having a boyfriend brought symbolic capital but also got in the way of school work and lowered girls’ aspirations.

These girls aspired to ‘settle down’, have children and work locally in WC feminine jobs such as child care. One girl in Archer’s study had to drop out of school after becoming pregnant.

Question 17

How does being ‘loud’ affect achievement?

Answer 17

Some girls adopted ‘loud’ feminine identities that often led them to be outspoken, assertive and independent - e.g. questioning teachers’ authority. This conflicted with the ‘ideal female pupil’ (passive and submissive to authority) and brought conflict with teachers who interpreted their behaviour as aggressive not assertive.

Question 18

What is the dilemma among working class girls?

Answer 18

Working class girls are faced with a choice of Gaining symbolic capital from peers by conforming to a hyper-heterosexual feminine identity or gaining educational capital by rejecting the working class identity and conforming to the school’s notions of a MC, respectable, ideal feminine female pupil. It may be difficult for girls to have both identities.

The successful working class girls:

Although at a disadvantage, some WC girls do go on to succeed. Evans (2009) shows this in her study of 21 WC sixth form girls in south London comprehensive. She found that the girls did want to achieve, but not for themselves. For family wanting to give back. The girls’ motivation reflected their working class feminine identities as Skegg notes ‘caring’ is a crucial part of this identity and the girls in Evans’ study wished to remain at home and contribute to their families. This may be combined with a fear of a potentially alien MC environment/people. The local is a key feature of WC habitus.

Another reason for living at home was economic necessity and fear of doubt. However living at home limits choice of university and thus potentially the market value of their degree. The girls are self excluding from elite universities and limiting their success (Archer). Thus the gender identity of WC girls plays a significant part in the relative lack of success compared to MC girls.

Question 19

What are the explanations for gender differences in subject choice?

Answer 19

• gender role socialisation
• gendered subject images
• gender identity and peer pressure
• gendered career opportunities

Question 20

How does gender role socialisation explain gender differences in subject choice?

Answer 20

Gender role socialisation is the process of learning the behaviour expected of males and females in society.

Early socialisation shapes children’s gender identity. Fiona Norman (1988) notes, from an early age, boys and girls are dressed differently, given different toys and encouraged to take part in different activities.

Eileen Byrne (1979) shows that teachers encourage boys to be tough and show initiative and not be weak or behave like sissies. Girls on the other hand are expected to be quiet, helpful, clean and tidy.

As a result of differences in socialisation, boys and girls develop different tastes in reading. Patricia Murphy and Janette Elwood (1998) show how these lead to different subject choices. Boys read hobby books and information texts, while girls are more likely to read stories about people.

Question 21

How does gendered subject images explain differences in subject choice?

Answer 21

Kelly argues that science is seen as a boys’ subject for several reasons:

• science teachers are more likely to be men
• the examples teachers use, and those in textbooks, often draw on boys’ rather than girls’ interests
• in science lessons, boys monopolise the apparatus and dominate the laboratory, acting as if it is ‘theirs’.

Question 22

What does Anne Colley note about gendered subject images?

Answer 22

Similarly Anne Colley (1988) notes that computer studies is seen as a masculine subject for two reasons:

• it involves working with machines - part of the male gender domain.
• the way it is taught is off-putting to females. Tasks tend to be abstract and teaching styles formed, with few opportunities for group work , which girls favour.

Question 23

What did Diana Leonard find about gendered subject images?

Answer 23

Interestingly, pupils who attend single-sex schools tend to hold less stereotyped subject images and make less traditional subject choices. Analysing data on 13,000 individuals, Diana Leonard (2006) found that, compared to pupils in mixed schools, girls in girls’ schools were more likely to take maths and science A levels, while boys in boys’ schools were more likely to take English and languages. Girls from single-sex schools were also more likely to study male-dominated subjects at university.

Question 24

How does education reinforce sexual identity?

Answer 24

• Double standards
• Verbal abuse
• The male gaze
• Male peer groups
• Female peer groups: policing identity
• Teacher and discipline

Question 25

How do double standards reinforce sexual identity?

Answer 25

There is a double standard when it comes to sexual morality. Male sexual promiscuity is approved of and given status by male peers but in a girl attracts negative labels. Feminists see this as evidence of patriarchal ideology that justifies male power and devalues women. Along with verbal abuse, the male gaze, school discipline, double standard can be seen as a form of social control that reinforces gender inequality by keeping females subordinate to males.

Question 26

How does verbal abuse reinforce sexual identity?

Answer 26

Connell believes boys use name calling and verbal abuse to put girls down if they behave or dress in certain ways. Paetcher says this name calling shapes gender identity and also maintains male power. He says the use of terms such as ‘gay’ and ‘lezzie’ are ways in which pupils ‘police’ each other’s sexual identity.

Question 27

How does the male gaze reinforce sexual identity?

Answer 27

There is a visual way in which pupils control each other’s identities. Mac an Ghaill called this the male gaze: the way male pupils and teachers look girls up down seeing them as sexual objects and making comments about their appearance. He says in this way heterosexual masculinity is reinforced and femininity devalued. Boys who do not display their heterosexuality in this way run the risk of being labelled ‘gay’.

Question 28

How do male peer groups reinforce sexual identity?

Answer 28

Male peer groups also use verbal abuse to reinforce their own definitions of masculinity. For example studies by Epstein and Willis shows boys are keen not to be seen as gay or effeminate. This extends to WC macho lads being dismissive of WC boys who worked hard and aspired to MC careers.

Question 29

How do female peer groups: policing identity reinforce sexual identity?

Answer 29

Archer showed how WC girls gained symbolic capital (status and popularity) from their female peers by performing hyper sexual identities. Female peers police this identity, and girls risked making themselves unpopular if they failed to conform. Ringrose said girls had to balance showing loyalty to female peers and moving into a more sexualised identity, which involved competing for boys. Had to avoid being called a slut by peers but also had to make sure they weren’t seen as frigid. Shaming was a social control device by which school girls police, regulate and discipline each other’s identities. A ‘boffin’ identity sometimes meant being excluded by other girls as well as boys.

Question 30

How do teachers and discipline reinforce sexual identity?

Answer 30

Research shows that teachers also play a part in reinforcing dominant definitions of gender identity. Havwood and Mac an Ghaill found that teachers often told boys off for behaving like girls. Teachers often ignored boys’ verbal abuse of girls and even blamed girls for attracting it. Male teacher’s attitudes subtly reinforce messages about gender. For example, Askew and Ross found that male teachers had a protective attitude towards female colleagues and would come into the class to ‘rescue’ them from difficult pupils. Reinforcing the idea that women cannot cope.

Question 31

Why do boys underachieve?

Answer 31

- Boys and literacy - Decline of men’s jobs - The Feminisation of education - Shortage of male primary school teachers - Laddish subcultures

Question 32

Why does literacy cause boys to underachieve?

Answer 32

According to the DCSF, the gender gap is mainly the result of boys’ poor literacy and language skills. One reason may be that parents spend less time reading to their sons. Women do most of the reading with children so it becomes seen as a feminine activity. In addition boys’ leisure pursuits such as football and computer games do little to improve communication skills. Girls’ have a ‘bedroom culture’ based on staying in and talking with friends.

Question 33

Why does the decline of men’s jobs cause boys to underachieve?

Answer 33

Since the 1980s there has been a significant decline in heavy industries such as steel, ship building, mining and other manufacturing. This is partly the result of globalisation with manufacturing industry relocating to developing countries. Mitsos and Browne claim this loss of employment has led to an identity crisis for WC men. Many now believing they have no chance of getting a proper job. This undermines their motivation and self esteem and so they give up trying to get qualifications. However it is worth noting that traditionally such jobs never required qualifications. Thus, it seems unlikely that the disappearance of jobs would have much impact on boys’ motivation to obtain qualifications.

Question 34

Why does the feminisation of education cause boys to underachieve?

Answer 34

Tony Sewell says schools are now feminine institutions which do not nurture masculine traits such as competitiveness and leadership, instead they celebrate qualities more often associated with girls such as methodical working and attentiveness in class. Sewell sees coursework as a major cause of gender differences. Mitsos and Browne agree it suits girls and how they work; they are neat, meet deadlines and work consistently over time. Boys seem to prefer final exams where they can cram the information. We have recently seen coursework removed from GCSE exams which may well benefit boys.

Question 35

Why does the shortage of male primary school teachers cause boys to underachieve?

Answer 35

The increasing lack of strong positive role models at home and at school is said to be a cause of boys’ underachievement. According to the DfEs 16% of primary school teachers are men. A YouGov poll of 8-11 year olds said that 42% of boys said that male teachers made them work harder and behave better. However, research contradicts this. For example, Becky Francis found that two thirds of the 7-8 year olds in her study said it made no difference. Unfortunately it may be that as boys get older they develop more sexist ideas about teachers which may in part be due to their socialisation and prevailing attitudes in Society.

Question 36

Why do Laddish subcultures cause boys to underachieve?

Answer 36

This is perhaps the most persuasive explanation. Debbie Epstein examined the ways in which WC masculinity is constructed in schools. She found that WC boys who worked at school were labelled and subject to a great deal of abuse including homophobic comments. This supports Becky Francis who said girls were less concerned about being labelled by peers as swots because it was more of a threat to a boy’s masculinity than it was to a girl’s femininity. WC masculinity is all about being tough and doing manual work. Non-manual work is an extension of school work which is seen as an effeminate and inferior. Epstein says ‘real boys’ don’t work - if they do they get bullied. She says boys need to j press their peers, they must appear to do little work, to be heavily competitive at sport and hetero-sex, to be rough, tough and dangerous to know. Epstein’s work on WC masculinity and schooling parallel those of Mac an Ghaill and Willis. According to Francis laddish culture is becoming increasingly widespread. She says that as girls move into traditional masculine careers, boys have responded by becoming increasingly laddish in an effort to construct themselves as non feminine. We are now seeing displays of ‘exaggerated masculinity’ in order to make up displacement in employment and the family.

Question 37

What has been done to try and raise boys’ achievement?

Answer 37

The Raising Boys Achievement project involves a range of teaching strategies, including single-sex teaching. The National Literacy Strategy includes a focus on improving boys’ reading. The Reading Champions scheme uses male role models celebrating their own reading interests. Playing for Success uses football and other sports to boost learning skills and motivation among boys. The Dads and Sons campaign encourages fathers to be more involved with their son’s education. These are all policies to raise boys’ achievement.