Gender, Crime and Justice

Question 1

Who’s more likely to be convicted of a crime?

Answer 1

Men

Question 2

Who committed the most theft from shops?

Answer 2

Women

Question 3

What are the stats for men and women for theft from shops?

Answer 3

As of 2019 - Men: 14% & Women: 34%

Question 4

Who has the highest number of re-offences? Stats for Women?

Answer 4

Women at 4.33%

Question 5

What did Pollak (1950) argue about the Chivalry Thesis?

Answer 5

• argues that men have a protective attitude towards women and so they’re less likely to be in official statistics
• This gives an invalid picture that exaggerates the extent of gender differences in offending

Question 6

AO3 of Chivalry Thesis

Answer 6

• Self report studies: Hales argues that men actually do commit more severe crimes and women are not just let off
  ^ Graham and Bowling argue the gender gap is decreasing
• Women are treated leniently due to litigating factors (women have children and remorse, men have pride)

Question 7

What is argued on bias against women?

Answer 7

• Feminists argue that the criminal justice system is biased against women
• Heidenson argues courts are more harsh when women deviate from traditional roles
• Men are expected to be violent and women are not so hence women get longer sentences

Question 8

Evidence for bias against women

Answer 8

• Double standards: Sharpe (2009) found from analysis of youth worker records that 7/11 girls were referred to support because they were sexually active and 0/44 boys were
  ^ Judge Wiles quoted “…when girls say no they don’t actually mean it…”
• Walklate (1988) - In rape cases the victim is usually out on trial more than the defendant because they need to prove the defendant is guilty
• Adler- Women who are seen as less respectable are less likely to get their evidence heard
• Walklate: Evil Woman theory - when women step out of gender norms they are treated more harshly
  ^ Argues that the criminal justice system has double standards

Question 9

According to victim surveys, what are women often victims of?

Answer 9

Domestic abuse and sexual offences

Question 10

According to victim surveys, what are men often victims of?

Answer 10

homicide and assault

Question 11

AO3 of victim surveys

Answer 11

Can’t predict everyone will come forward about the crime

Question 12

Victim surveys - 3 example statistics

Answer 12

• Only 8% of women who experience serious sexual assaults report it to the police
• Women are 10x more likely to be sexually assaulted than men
• Women are more likely to be victimised by an acquaintance, whereas men are more likely to be victimised by a stranger

Question 13

In their studies on self report surveys, what did Bowling and Graham (1995) find?

Answer 13

Males were more likely to offend but the difference is smaller than official statistics

Question 14

What did Hales et al (2005) find?

Answer 14

• Men were more likely to have offended in all major offences.
• Gender gap increases as the offences become more serious

Question 15

What does Parson argue in his Sex Role Theory?

Answer 15

• Gender differences in crime is because of roles in nuclear family.
• E.g., men have the instrumental role and women have the expressive role

Question 16

(Sex Role Theory) How does the absence of a male role model effect boys and girls?

Answer 16

• Girls have adult role models (mother), but boys don’t have a adult role model as father is at work
• Boys reject feminine models of behaviour

Question 17

(Sex Role Theory) What is compensatory compulsory masculinity?

Answer 17

Boys reject feminine characteristics and engage in acts of delinquency such as aggression

Question 18

(Sex Role Theory) What did Cohen argue about the lack of male role models?

Answer 18

Lack of male role models makes boys turn to street gangs as a source of masculine identity

Question 19

(Sex Role Theory) What do New Right theorists argue about the absence of male role models?

Answer 19

The absence of male role model in matrifocal lone parent families leads to turn to gangs

Question 20

AO3 - How does Walklate criticise sex role theory?

Answer 20

• Criticises sex role theory for its biological assumptions - theory tries to explain gender differences through socialisation
• Says Parsons assumes that because women have biological capacity to bear children, they’re best suited to bear children
• deterministic as it assumes all boys will turn to gangs

Question 21

AO3 - How do feminists criticise sex role theory?

Answer 21

Locate their explanations in patriarchal nature of society and women’s subordinate position in it

Question 22

What does Heidensohn argue in his patriarchal control?

Answer 22

Argues the reason women commit fewer and less serious crime is because patriarchal society imposes greater control over women and this reduces opportunities to offend

Question 23

(Patriarchal control) How are women controlled at home?

Answer 23

• The domestic role imposes restrictions on their time and movement which confines them inside their home, reducing the opportunities to commit a crime

Question 24

(Patriarchal control) What do Dobash and Dobash find on domestic abuse?

Answer 24

They found that many acts of violence were due to men’s dissatisfaction with wives performance of domestic duties

Question 25

(Patriarchal control) What’s another way men exercise control?

Answer 25

• Through financial power
• By denying them the leisure funds they end up spending more time at home
• Daughters also feel restrictions so adopt bedroom culture

Question 26

(Patriarchal control) How are women controlled in public?

Answer 26

They are controlled by the threat and fear of male violence against them, especially sexual

Question 27

(Patriarchal control) How many men and women avoided going out in the dark due to fear of being victims?

Answer 27

According to Islington Crime Survey - Men: 14% & Women: 54%

Question 28

(Patriarchal control) How does media portrayal stop women from going outside?

Answer 28

The media portrayal of rapist as a stranger gives women less of an incentive to go out, when usually it is someone they know

Question 29

(Patriarchal control) What does Lees argue?

Answer 29

In schools boys maintain control through sexualised verbal abuse
They label girls as “slags” if they fail to conform to gender role expectations

Question 30

(Patriarchal control) How are women controlled at work?

Answer 30

• They’re controlled by male superiors
• Sexual harassment keeps them in their place
• Often kept at subordinate positions = glass ceiling (so they’re less likely to be involved in white collar crimes)

Question 31

(Patriarchal control) However what else does Heidensohn recognise?

Answer 31

• Patriarchy does also push women to commit crime

- E.g., Poor women often turn to prostitution or theft to survive

Question 32

(Class and Gender bias) What was Carlen’s study?

Answer 32

• Conducted a research through unstructured interviews of 39 working class women who had previously been convicted of a crime.
• Recognises that middle class women also commit crimes, the serious offences are from working class women
• Uses Hirschi’s control theory to explain female crime (Where rewards appear greater than the risks)

Question 33

(Class and Gender bias) What two things did working class women have to conform from?

Answer 33

• Class deal

- Gender deal

Question 34

(Class and Gender bias) What is class deal?

Answer 34

Class deal is when women who work will be offered material rewards, decent standards of living and leisure opportunities

Question 35

(Class and Gender bias) What is gender deal?

Answer 35

Patriarchal ideology that promises women material and emotional rewards if they conform to their domestic role

Question 36

(Class and Gender bias) What happened in context to class deals?

Answer 36

• Women failed to find legitimate ways of earning, which left them feeling powerless
• 32 of 39 women were already in poverty before being convicted
• The qualifications gained in jail didn’t help when they were released
• When claiming benefits, they were often humiliated

Question 37

(Class and Gender bias) What happened in context to gender deals?

Answer 37

• Most women did not see the point in family life
• Some were abused by partners or other males
• Over 1/2 spent time in care due to broken relationships
• Those who left care were homeless or poor and unemployed

Question 38

(Class and Gender bias) Carlen’s conclusion

Answer 38

• Being bought up in care or oppressive family led to crime
• Drug and alcohol addictions were contributory factors that stemmed from being in poverty or care
• Being jailed made class deals less available and crime more attractive

Question 39

AO3 of Class and Gender bias

Answer 39

• See women’s oppression caused by external factors

- Carlen’s study was under representative and largely working class and serious offenders

Question 40

What does Adler argue in the liberation thesis?

Answer 40

• As women become more liberated from patriarchy, they commit more crime
• Their crimes will become as frequent and serious as men’s crimes

Question 45

The criminalisation of females

Answer 45

• The female crime rate is rising by 17% every year
• Steffensmeller and Schwartz: 17% is not accurate as found in victim surveys and and self report
• Net Widening: women are now being prosecuted for crimes that were previously ignored

Question 46

Evidence of criminalisation of females

Answer 46

• In the USA, if you’re in an abusive relationship and you fight back you both get convicted
• Playground altercations: mums fighting mums

Question 47

(Liberation Thesis) How have changes in society led to a change in women’s offending patterns?

Answer 47

As patriarchal control and discrimination have lessened there has been an increase in opportunities in education and work for women

Question 48

(Liberation Thesis) As a result of an increase in education and work opportunities what happens?

Answer 48

• Women are now more confident as they’re getting more opportunities
• They’re now in more senior roles which gives them more opportunities to commit white collar crimes

Question 49

Evidence to support the liberation thesis

Answer 49

• Increased pattern in participation in crimes previously seen as “men crimes”
• There’s more talk in the media on growth of girl gangs as they’re adopting more of a desire to to take on male stances

Question 50

AO3 on Liberation Thesis

Answer 50

• Female crime was already increasing in the 1950s, before any liberation movements
• Most female crimes are committed by the working class who are least likely to be influenced by women’s liberation
• Ladler and Hunt found female gang members in USA were expected to conform to conventional gender roles

Question 51

(Males in crime) What does Messerschmidt argue?

Answer 51

• argues that masculinity is a social construct or an accomplishment men have to constantly work on to present to others

Question 52

(Males in crime) What two types of masculinity is there?

Answer 52

Hegemonic and Subordinated

Question 53

(Males in crime) What is Hegemony?

Answer 53

• Dominant and prestigious form that most men wish to accomplish
• Societal pattern where stereotypically male traits are idealised as masculine

Question 54

(Males in crime) What is subordinated masculinity?

Answer 54

• includes gay men, lower class and some ethnic minority men who have no desire to accomplish hegemonic masculinity

Question 55

(Males in crime) How do white middle class boys participate in crimes?

Answer 55

• They are obedient to teachers to show their middle class status
• BUT they participate in crime through things like pranks and vandalism outside of school

Question 56

(Males in crime) How do white working class boys participate in crimes?

Answer 56

• Show their masculinity in both school and outside because they defy teachers instructions and are more likely to be exist
• SYNOPTIC LINK - Willis: Lads
• More likely to show physical aggression

Question 57

(Males in crime) How do black working class boys participate in crimes?

Answer 57

• Less expectations of education
• more likely to use gang membership to find a source if their masculinity
• more likely to be violent and commit more serious crime

Question 58

(Males in crime) What is Winlow’s study based on?

Answer 58

• Globalisation has led to deindustrialisation so traditional manual work has been replaced of has gone, so they lose their masculine identity
• but as there have been losses of jobs, new ones have been created in their place, such as at bars, pubs and clubs
  ^ then they use these to express their masculine identity

Question 59

(Males in crime) What was Winlow’s (2011) study?

Answer 59

• on a study on bouncers in Sunderland, draws on criminal and conflict subcultures - night time economy has given new illegitimate opportunities
• the opportunity to use violence became a commodity as well as masculinity
• so therefore masculinity became a commodity in its own right