Gender , Crime And Justice

Question 1

What is meant by the chivalry thesis and how does it lead to lower crime rates for women ?

Answer 1

The chivalry thesis argues that most criminal justice agents such as police officers , magistrates and judges have been socialised in a chivalrous way towards women
The criminal justice system is thus more lenient with women and so their crimes are less likely to end up in the official statistics . This in turn gives an invalid picture that exaggerates the extent of gender differences in rates of offending

Question 2

Do self report studies support the chivalry thesis ?

Answer 2

Yes
Self report studies - where individuals are asked about what crimes they have committed does suggest that female offenders are treated more leniently

Question 3

Self report study conducted by Graham and Bowling which suggests that the chivalry thesis is real - women are treated more leniently ?

Answer 3

Graham and Bowling research on 1,721 14-25 year olds found that although males were more likely to offend , the difference was smaller than that recorded in the official statistics

Question 4

Evidence from page et al self report study which showed the chivalry thesis in practice ?

Answer 4

Page Et al found that while only 1in 11 female self reported offenders had been cautioned or prosecuted , the figure for males was over 1 in 7 self reported offenders

Question 5

How do official statistics support the chivalry thesis ?

Answer 5

-females are more likely than males to be released on bail rather than remanded in custody
-females are more likely than males to receive a fine or a community sentence and less likely to be sent to prison , women on average serve shorter prison sentences
-only 1 in 9 female offenders receive a prison sentence for shoplifting , but 1 in 5 male

Question 6

Hood’s evidence for the chivalry thesis at work ?

Answer 6

Hood’s study of over 3,000 defendants found that women were about one third less likely to be jailed in similar cases

Question 7

Farrington and Morris’ evidence against the chivalry thesis ?

Answer 7

Farrignton and Morris’ study of sentencing of 408 offences of thefts in a magistrates court found that women were not sentenced more leniently for comparable offences

Question 8

Box evidence against the chivalry thesis ?

Answer 8

Box’s review of British and American self report studies concludes that women who commit serious offences are not treated more favourably than men

Question 9

Buckle and Farrington evidence against the chivalry thesis ?

Answer 9

Buckle and Farrington’s observational study of shoplifting in a department store witnessed twice as many males shoplifting as females - despite the fact that the number of male and female offenders in the official statistics are more or less equal. This small scale study suggests that women offenders are more likely to be prosecuted compared to their male counterparts

Question 10

How can self report studies be used as evidence against the chivalry thesis ?

Answer 10

Self report studies provide evidence that males commit more offences . For example , young men are more likely than females to report binge drinking , taking illegal drugs or engaging in deviant behaviour

Question 11

How can under-reporting of male crimes against women be used as evidence against the chivalry thesis include Yearnshire ?

Answer 11

The chivalry thesis ignores the fact that many male crimes do not get reported . For example , in 2012 only 8% of females who had been victims of sexual assault reported it to the police
Yearnshire found that a women typically suffers 35 assaults before reporting domestic violence

Question 12

Reasons supporting the chivalry thesis ?

Answer 12

-if women appear to be treated more leniently , it may simply be because their offences are less serious
-women offenders are also more likely to show remorse so helps explain why they are more likely to receive a caution instead of going to court

Question 13

How does feminist Heidensohn argue the criminal justice system is biased against women ?

Answer 13

Heidensohn argues that courts treat females more harshly than males when they deviate from gender norms

Question 14

Bias against women - example double standards include Sharpe’s findings ?

Answer 14

Double standards - courts punish girls but not boys for premature or promiscuous sexual activity
Sharpe found from her analysis of youth worker records that 7 out of 11 girls were referred to support because they were sexually active compared to none out of the 44 boys

Question 15

What did Carlen discover about who receive custodial sentences and why women are jailed ?

Answer 15

Carlen argues that when women are jailed it is less for the seriousness of the crime and more to the courts assessment of them as wives , mothers and daughters .
Girls whose parents believed them to be beyond control are more likely to receive custodial sentences compared to girls who lived more conventional lives.
Carlen found that Scottish judges were more likely to jail women whose children were in care than women who they saw as good mothers

Question 16

What are the 3 main explanations of gender differences in crime rate ?

Answer 16

-functionalist sex role theory
-control theory
-liberation thesis

Question 17

Functionalist sex role theory - what does Parsons believe is the cause of differences in gender crime rates ?

Answer 17

Parsons traces differences in crime and deviance to gender roles in the conventional nuclear family. While men take on the instrumental breadwinner role , women perform the expressive role in the home where they take the main responsibility for socialising the children
While this gives girls access to an adult role model , it tends to mean that boys reject feminine models of behaviour that express tenderness , gentleness and emotion . Instead of, boys distance themselves from such models by engaging in compensatory compulsory masculinity through aggression and anti social behaviour and acts of delinquency

Question 18

Functionalist sex role theory - what does Cohen believe is the impact on boys due to the lack of male role model ?

Answer 18

Cohen argues that the lack of male role model means boys are more likely to turn to all male street gangs as a source of masculine identity , in these subcultures status is earned by acts of toughness , risk taking and delinquency

Question 19

Functionalist sex role theory - what do new right believe the absence of male role models in lone parent families leads to and why ?

Answer 19

New right theorists argue that the absence of a male role model in matrifocal lone parent families leads to boys Turing to criminal street gangs as a source of status and identity

Question 20

Functionalist sex role theory - how does Walklate criticise the sex role theory ?

Answer 20

Walklate criticises the sex role theory for its biological assumptions , parsons assumes that because women have the biological capacity to bear children they are best suited to the expressive role

Question 21

What are the 2 feminist approaches that help to explain female crime rates ?

Answer 21

-control theory
-the liberation thesis

Question 22

Control theory - in which 3 ways does Heidensohn believe that men control women leading to reduced opportunities for women to offend ?

Answer 22

-Control at the home
-control in the public
-control in the work

Question 23

Control theory - what does Heidensohn believe leads women to have reduced opportunities to offend ?

Answer 23

Heidensohn believes that women commit less and less serious crimes than men because in our patriarchal society it imposes greater control over women and reduces their opportunities

Question 24

Control theory - how does Heidensohn explain control at the home leading to less opportunity for women to commit crime ?

Answer 24

Women’s domestic role , with its constant round of housework and childcare , imposes severe restrictions on their time and movement as confines them to their house for long periods , reducing their opportunities to offend

Question 25

Control theory - what did Heidensohn believe happens to women who reject their domestic role (control at home ) ?

Answer 25

Women who try to reject their domestic role may find their partners seek to impose it by force , through domestic violence

Question 26

Control theory - what did Dobash and Dobash find how violent attacks against women are linked to control at the home and how else do men exercise their control over women ?

Answer 26

Dobash and Dobash show how many violent attacks result from men’s dissatisfaction with their wives performance of domestic duties .
Men also exercise control through their financial power ,for example by denying women sufficient funds for leisure activities thereby restricting their time outside of the home

Question 27

Control theory - how are daughters subject to patriarchal control according to Heidensohn ?

Answer 27

Daughters too are subject to patriarchal control , girls are less likely to come and go as they please or to stay out late. As a result they develop a bedroom culture socialising at home with friends rather than in public spaces . Girls are required to do more housework than boys . As a result they have less opportunity to engage in deviant behaviour on the streets

Question 28

Control theory - how does Heidensohn believe women are controlled in the public ?

Answer 28

Heidensohn believes women are controlled in the public by being controlled in public spaces by the threat or fear of male violence against them especially sexual violence

Question 29

Control theory - how does Lees find boys control women in school ( control in public ) ?

Answer 29

Lees notes that in schools , boys maintain control through sexualised verbal abuse for example labelling girls as slags if they fail to conform the gender role expectations

Question 30

Control theory- what did the Islington crime survey find about women’s fear of being crime victims (control in public ) ?

Answer 30

The Islington crime survey found that 54% of women avoided going out after dark for fear of being victims of crime , compared to 14% of men

Question 31

Control theory - what is another way women are controlled in public ?

Answer 31

Females are controlled in public by the fear of being defined as not respectable , dress and makeup and ways of speaking and acting that are defined as inappropriate can gain them a reputation eg labelled as prostitutes

Question 32

Control theory- how does Heidensohn believe women are controlled at work ?

Answer 32

Women’s behaviour is controlled at work by male supervisors and managers . Sexual harassment is widespread and keeps women in their place . Furthermore ,women’s subordinate position reduces their opportunities to engage in major criminal activity at work
For example , the glass ceiling prevents many women from rising to senior positions where there is a greater opportunity to commit fraud , asa result they are less likely to be involved in white collar crime

Question 33

Control theory - how does Heidensohn also recognise patriarchal control can push women to commit crime ?

Answer 33

Heidensohn recognises that the patriarchy can push some women into crime , for example women are more likely to be poor as a result of gender inequalities in the labour market and may turn to theft or prostitution to gain a decent standard of living

Question 34

What was Carlens study on and what did it lead them to discover ?

Answer 34

Carlen used unstructured tape recorded interviews on a study of 39 , 15-46 year olds who were working class women who had been convicted of a range of crimes including theft ,fraud , burglary , drugs , prostitution , violence and arson
Although Carlen recognises that there are some middle class offenders , she argues the most convicted serious female criminals are working class

Question 35

What does Carlen argue are the 2 types of rewards or deals which are likely to lead working class women to conform to and how can this lead women to commit crime ?

Answer 35

The class deal - women who work will be offered material rewards with a decent standard of living and leisure opportunities
The gender deal - patriarchal ideology promises women material and emotional rewards from family life by conforming to the norms of a conventional domestic gender role
If these rewards are not available or not worth the effect then crime becomes more likely

Question 36

What are criticisms of Heidensoh’s control theory and Carlens class and gender deals ?

Answer 36

-both see women’s behaviour as determined by external forces such as patriarchal control or class and gender deals which critics argue underplays the importance of free will and choice in offending
-Carlen’s sample was small and therefore is less representative , consisting of largely working class and serious offenders

Question 37

What is meant by the term liberation thesis put forward by Adler ?

Answer 37

If society is to become less patriarchal and more equal then women’s crime rates will become similar to men’s .
Alder argues as women become liberated from the patriarchy then their crimes will become as frequent and as serious as men’s , women’s liberation has led to a new type of female criminals and a rise in the female crime rates

Question 38

Liberation thesis - what does Alder argue the changes of the structure of society have led to ?

Answer 38

Alder argues that changes in the structure of society have led to changes in women’s offending behaviour , as patriarchal control and discrimination have lessened opportunities in education and work have become more equal , women have begun to adopt traditional “male” roles in both legitimate activity (work) and illegitimate activity (crime)

Question 39

Liberation thesis - what types of crimes do women commit now due to their liberation according to Alder ?

Answer 39

As a result of women’s liberation , women no longer commit traditional “female” crimes such as shoplifting and prostitution . They now also commit typically “male” offences such as crimes of violence and white collar crime

Question 40

Liberation thesis - what allows women to commit more typical male crimes ?

Answer 40

Women commit typical male crimes because of women’s greater self confidence and self assertiveness and the fact they now have greater opportunities in the legitimate structure . For example , there are more women in senior positions at work which gives them the opportunity to commit more serious white collar crimes such as fraud

Question 41

Liberation thesis - what is evidence for the liberation thesis according to Alder ?

Answer 41

Alder argues that the pattern of female crime has shifted . She sites studies showing a rising level of female participation in crimes previously regarded as male such as embezzlement and armed robbery

Question 42

Liberation thesis - what is evidence for the liberation thesis found by Denscombe ?

Answer 42

A study by Denscombe found that females were as likely as males to engage in risk taking behaviour and that girls were adopting more “male” stances such as the desire to be in control and look “hard”

Question 43

What are general criticisms of alders liberation thesis ?

Answer 43

-the female crime rate began rising in the 1950s - long before the women’s liberation movement , which emerged in the late 1960s
-most female criminals are working class - the group least likely to be influenced by women’s liberation which has benefitted middle class women much more
-argue that alder overestimated the extent to which women have become literates and the extent to which they are now able to engage in serious crime

Question 44

What are the official statistics found by hand and Dodd which are evidence for the liberation thesis put forward by Alder ?

Answer 44

For example Hand and Dodd found between 2000 and 2008 police statistics show the number of females arrested for violence rose by an average of 17% a year

Question 45

What do Steffensmeier and Schwartz find about the amount of women crime rising ?

Answer 45

They found while women’s share of arrests for violence grew in official statistics , this rise was not matched by the findings of victim surveys or self report studies

Question 46

What do Steffensmeier and Schwartz believe is making women appear like they are committing more crime ?

Answer 46

They argue that women’s increase in number of arrests is due to the justice system widening the net - arresting and prosecuting females for less serious forms of violence than previously

Question 47

What does chesney Lind believe has led to the criminalisation of females ?

Answer 47

Chesney Lind argues that the policy of mandatory arrests for domestic violence has led to a steep rise in the female violence statistics in the USA . Where a couple fight , they may both be arrested even though it is more likely the women is the victim but now more likely to be seen as violent offender

Question 48

What did Sharpe and Gelsthorpe find about how net widening policies are leading to the criminalisation of females ?

Answer 48

Sharpe and Gelsthorpe note that net widening policies are producing a rise in the official statistics for female violent crimes , there is a growing trend towards prosecuting females for low level physical altercations , most convictions are minor offences not involving weapons

Question 49

What is one way that explains men’s higher rates in offending ?

Answer 49

One expiation of men’s higher rates in offending is the concept of masculinity

Question 50

What are the 3 types of males / masculinity that Messerschmidt explore about and what types of crime this leads to ?

Answer 50

-white middle class youths - have to subordinate themselves to teachers in order to achieve their middle class Status, outside of school , their masculinity takes an oppositional form eg through drinking , pranks and vandalism
-white working class youths - have less chance of educational success so their masculinity is oppositional inside and outside of school , it is constructed around sexist attitudes , being tough and opposing teachers authority good example is the boys in Willis study
-Black lower working class youths -may have fewer expectations of a reasonable job and may use their gang membership and violence to express their masculinity or turn to serious property crime to achieve material success

Question 51

What are the criticisms of Messerschmidt ?

Answer 51

-is masculinity an explanation of male crime , or just a description of make offenders eg tough , controlling etc
-Messerschmidt is in danger of a circular argument , masculinity explains male crime eg violence because they are committed by males who have violent characteristics
-he overworks the concept of masculinity to explain virtually all male crimes from joy riding to embezzlement

Question 52

What is reason of what men commit more crime due to globalisation ?

Answer 52

Globalisation has led to a postmodern de industrialised society which has led to the loss of many traditional manual jobs through which the working class where able to express their masculinity through hard physical labour and providing for their families
At the same time , there has been an expansion of the service sector jobs such as the night time leisure economy of clubs , pubs and bars where there are criminal opportunities for males to express their masculinity

Question 53

How does winlow’s study show a postmodern society of deindustrialisation leads to more male crime , what is the study on ?

Answer 53

Winlow’s study of bouncers , in an area of deindustrialisation and unemployment. Working as bouncers in pubs and clubs provided the young men with both paid work and the opportunity for illegal business ventures in drugs , alcohol and the opportunity to demonstrate their masculinity through the use of violence