Gender Bias Flashcards
What is Bias?
Gender refers to the social, psychological, and cultural differences between males and females, including roles, behaviours, and identity.
What is Gender Bias?
Gender bias refers to the tendency to treat one gender differently from another, leading to distorted or unfair outcomes in research or theory. Such differential treatment of males and females is often based on stereotypes and not real differences.
What did Freud argue?
- Freud argued that ‘anatomy is destiny’, meaning that there are genuine psychological differences between men and women because of their physiological differences.
- For example, he claimed that young girls suffer from ‘penis envy’ and viewed femininity as a failed form of masculinity.
Gender Differences
- Evidence suggests that there are a small number of real gender differences, confirmed through cross-cultural studies.
- For example, in a review of the research on sex differences, Maccoby and Jacklin concluded that there were only four differenced between boys and girls:
- Girls have greater verbal ability.
- Boys have greater visual and spatial abilities.
- Boys have greater arithmetical ability, a difference that only appears at adolescence.
- Girls are less aggressive than boys.
What are the Types of Gender Bias?
- Alpha Bias
- Beta Bias
- Androcentrism
What is Alpha Bias?
Alpha bias refers to the tendency to exaggerate and overestimate differences between genders, presenting such differences as fixed and inevitable.
Examples of Alpha Bias
- Freud claimed that young girls suffer from ‘penis envy’ and viewed femininity as a failed form of masculinity. He also claimed, in his psychoanalytic approach, that because girls do not suffer from the same oedipal conflict as boys, they do not identify with their mothers as strongly as boys identify with their father, so develop weaker superegos.
- The evolutionary approach in psychology has been criticised for its alpha bias. This is because this approach suggests that evolutionary processes in the development of the human species explain why men tend to be dominant, why women have a more parental investment in their offspring, and why men are more likely to commit adultery. However, society has changed considerably over recent years, and it is argued that the evolutionary perspective shouldn’t be used to justify gender differences.
- Another example of alpha bias is the sociobiological theory of relationship formation, which explains human sexual attraction through the principle of ‘survival efficiency’. It is in the male’s interest to try to impregnate as many women as possible to increase the chances of his genes being passed on to the next generation. For the female, the best chance of preserving her genes is to ensure the healthy survival of the relatively few offspring she is able to produce in her lifetime. The central promise of the sociobiological theory is that sexual promiscuity in males is genetically determined whilst females who engage in the same behaviour are regarded as going against their ‘nature’ - an exaggeration of the difference between genders. This is also an example of an essentialist argument in psychology.
Consequences of Alpha Bias
- Although these differences may occasionally heighten the value of women, they are more likely to devalue them in relation to their male counterparts.
- Can lead to the misrepresentation of one gender, reinforcing stereotypes and justifying unequal treatment or discrimination.
What is Beta Bias?
Beta bias refers to when gender differences have been minimised or ignored, leading to the assumption that findings from one gender unarguably and equally apply to the other. In most cases, it is the findings of studies that prevalently involve males, being applied to females.
Examples of Beta Bias?
- Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral development was based on extensive interviews that he conducted with boys aged 10-16. The same all male sample was then re-interviewed at intervals of 3-4 years over a 20-year period. His classification system is based on a morality of justice and some researchers, such as Carol Gilligan, have found that women tend to be more focused on relationships when making moral decisions, and therefore often appear to be at a lower level of moral reasoning when using Kohlberg’s system. Therefore, Kohlberg’s approach meant that a real difference was ignored.
- Male and female participants are used in most studies, but there is usually no attempt to analyse the data to see whether there are significant sex differences. Where differences are found, it may be possible that these occur because researchers ignore the differential treatment of participants. For example, Rosenthal reported that male experimenters were more pleasant, friendly, honest and encouraging with females than with male participants. This led Rosenthal to conclude: ‘Male and female subjects may, psychologically, simply not be in the same experiment at all’.
- Animal research can be argued to suffer from beta bias. For example, biological research into the fight-or-flight response has often been carried out with male animals because they have less variation in hormones than females. It was assumed that this would not be a problem as the fight-or-flight response would be the same for both. However, late stress research by Taylor et al. has challenged this view by providing evidence that females produce a tend-and-befriend response. The beta bias in the earlier animal studies meant that for a long time, the stress response was not fully understood and that a real difference was ignored.
Consequences of Beta Bias?
- We end up with a view of human nature that is supposed to apply to men and women alike, but in fact, has a male or androcentric bias.
- Can lead to misunderstanding of gender differences and the neglect of unique experiences or needs of each gender.
What is Androcentrism?
Androcentrism is when male behaviour is viewed as the norm, and female behaviour is seen as a deviation from this standard. It is essentially when psychological theories and research are centred on or dominated by males. In the past, most psychologists were males, and the theories they produced tended to represent a male view of the world.
Examples of Androcentrism
- Many feminist commentators have objected to the diagnostic category premenstrual syndrome (PMS) on the grounds that it stereotypes and trivialises female experience. Critics claim that PMS is a social construct which medicalises female emotions, especially anger, by explaining these in hormonal terms. On the other hand, Brescoll and Ulhman have found that male anger is often seen as a rational response to external pressures.
- Asch’s conformity studies involved all male participants, as did many of the other conformity studies, such as Perrin and Spencer, and therefore it was assumed that females would respond in the same way. This is an issue as it has been found that women are more likely to conform than men, especially in situations involving social relationships or group harmony, therefore a real difference was ignored.
- Freud’s psychosexual theory is often criticised for being androcentric as it views male development as the norm and female development as inferior. He proposed that boys experience the ‘Oedipus complex’, which is crucial for developing a stable male identity. In contrast, Freud described female development through ‘penis envy’, suggesting that girls feel inadequate because they lack a penis and seek to compensate by forming relationships with men and having children. This framing positions male development as the default and considers female’s development as subordinate.
Consequences of Androcentrism
- If our understanding of what counts as ‘normal’ behaviour is being drawn from research that involves all-male samples, then any behaviour that deviates from this standard is likely to be considered abnormal, inferior or deficient by comparison.
- Causes female behaviour to be misunderstood, and even pathologised.
- Male behaviour is seen as more valid or typical than that of female’s.
Weakness
Point: One issue in psychological research is sexism within the research process.
Evidence: There is an evident lack of women in senior research positions, meaning that female concerns and perspectives may not be reflected in the research questions being asked and investigated. Furthermore, male researchers are more likely to have their work published, increasing the dominance of the male viewpoint in psychological research. For example, Denmark et al. found that laboratory experiments may disadvantage female participants, who are more likely to be labelled as irrational or incompetent by male experimenters.
Justification: This suggests that the research process itself is structured in a way that reinforces the male perspective and completely neglects females’, leading to male behaviour being seen as a norm whereas female behaviour being seen as a deviation.
Implication: This increases the chances of gender bias being present in the development and outcome of research, which matters because psychology may be validating institutional sexism, creating a systematic bias in research and theory. Addressing this issue would require a greater representation of women in senior research roles and increased sensitivity to gender differences.
Weakness
Point: Gender bias in psychology can also work against males as well as females, particularly when alpha bias leads to the overvaluation of female traits or the undervaluation of male experiences.
Evidence: For example, Chodorow suggested that women are naturally more relational and caring, reinforcing the idea that nurturing is an inherently female trait. Similarly, Rosenthal found that male experimenters were more pleasant and encouraging toward female participants, which could have introduced bias in research outcomes. Additionally, women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression and offered a treatment than men. This could reflect a genuine difference in prevalence, or it may be due to a bias in the diagnostic system that overlooks male depression because of societal expectations for men to ‘pull themselves together’ and ‘tough it out’.
Justification: This demonstrates that the psychological research and diagnostic systems may be influenced by gender stereotypes, leading to unequal treatment of men and women. The assumption that men are naturally more emotionally resilient prevents them from receiving appropriate support and care.
Implication: Consequently, such gender bias can distort the outcome of psychological research and treatments. In the case of psychopathology, this misrepresentation can lead to a misdiagnosis and inadequate mental health support for men. Poor mental health amongst the male population may result in them potentially disengaging in work. Such increased absenteeism from work not only affects their personal well-being, but has significant economic implications as it productivity and therefore slows down economic growth.
Strength
Point: A strength of psychological research is that feminist approaches help reduce gender bias, leading to more balanced and inclusive theories.
Evidence: For example, Eagly’s research recognises that females are often seen as less effective leaders than males. However, rather than reinforcing stereotypes, this research is used to develop training programs that support women in leadership roles, helping to address gender disparities. Additionally, Worrell’s criteria for non-gender biased research promote fairness by encouraging the study of diverse female experiences, considering women in their natural settings and using alternative methods to explore their personal lives. For example, Gilligan used in-depth interviews to explore women’s moral development, highlighting how their decision-making revolves around care and relationships, in comparison to men, who tend to focus on justice and fairness.
Justification: By adopting these feminist approaches, psychological research becomes more representative and applicable to real-world experiences, rather than being shaped by outdated, male-centred perspectives. This ensures that findings more accurately reflect both genders, reducing the risk of institutional sexism in psychological research.
Implication: By acknowledging the biological and social influences on gender differences, feminist psychology has contributed to a greater appreciation of conventionally ‘feminine’ characteristics. This progress highlights how psychology is evolving to minimise stereotypes and promote gender inequality, allowing psychological research to become more inclusive and impactful.
Weakness
Point: A limitation of psychological research is that gender bias often goes unchallenged.
Evidence: For example, Darwin’s theory of sexual selection proposed that women are naturally more selective in mate choice due to their greater investment in offspring. However, recent DNA evidence suggests that women can be equally as competitive as men when necessary, challenging Darwin’s original claims. If such gender-biased research remains uncontested, it can reinforce misleading stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices.
Justification: This highlights that gender bias is not just a flaw in research design but a broader issue with real-world consequences. Misguided theories about gender roles can heavily influence social norms, employment opportunities, and even healthcare decisions, disadvantages both men and women.
Implication: Therefore, it is crucial for psychological research to continually address and revise gender-biased research theories to avoid augmenting harmful stereotypes.
