Gender Bias

Question 1

what is gender bias?

Answer 1

The differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real difference

Question 2

what is universality and bias?

Answer 2

psychologists hold beliefs and values that have been influenced by the social and historical context within which they live. these beliefs may be biased that is leaning towards a subjective view that does not necessarily reflect objective reality. this means thats bias in reasearch is inevitable. bias also undermines psychologys claim to universality- that conclusions drawn can be applied to everyone, anywhere, regardless to time and culture.

Question 3

what is universality?

Answer 3

Universality – The aim to develop theories that apply to all people, which may include
real differences. This describes any underlying characteristic of human behaviour which
can be applied to all individuals, regardless of their differences. Bias, lack of validity and
issues with reliability reduce the universality of psychological findings.

Question 4

what is alpha bias?

Answer 4

psychological research that exaggerates differences is alpha-biased. sometimes these differences often devalue women in relation to men.

Question 5

what are some examples of alpha bias?

Answer 5

1. sociobiological theory of relationship formation
2. theory of psychosexual development
3. schizophrenia

Question 6

examples of alpha bias- sociobiological theory

Answer 6

Wilson’s sociobiological theory of relationship formation suggests that sexual promiscuity in males is genetically determined, whereas promiscuous females are going against their ‘nature’. Females, from an evolutionary standpoint, need to be more selective when choosing their mates, due to having a limited supply of eggs and requiring more energy and effort to reproduce, compared to men. Therefore, such alpha bias may lead to prejudice and stereotyping of women who engage in these behaviours

Question 7

examples of alpha bias: theory of psychosexual development

Answer 7

Freuds theory of psychosexual development: during the phallic stage of development both boys and girls develop a desire for their opposite gender parent. in a boy this creates a very strong castration anxiety (fear his father will cut his penis off). this anxiety is resolved when the boy identifies with his father. but a girls eventual identification with her same-gender parent is weaker, which means her superego is weaker. therefore girls/women are morally inferior to men/boys.

Question 8

examples of alpha bias- schizophrenia

Answer 8

Historically, since the 1980s, schizophrenia has been diagnosed more frequently in men compared to women, whereas before this time there had been no significant differences. This is an example of alpha bias, according to Cotton et al, because women are more likely to be able to continue working, maintain good interpersonal relationships and show less distress than men. This means that the schizophrenic
symptoms of women may be masked or not severe enough to merit a diagnosis.

Question 9

what is beta bias?

Answer 9

psychological research that ignores or underestimates differences is beta biased. this happens when we assume that research findings apply equally to men and women even when women have been excluded from the research process

Question 10

what are some examples of beta bias?

Answer 10

1.fight or flight
2. moral reasoning theory

Question 11

examples of beta bias: fight or flight research

Answer 11

research on the flight or fight response. biological research has generally favoured using male animals because female behaviour is affected by regular hormonal changes due to ovulation. this simply ignores any possible differences. early research assumed both male and females responded to threatening situations with flight or fight. Taylor et al. claimed that this is not true and described the tend and befriend response. the love hormone oxytocin is more plentiful in women and it seems that women respond to stress by increasing oxytocin production. this reduces the fight or flight response and enhances a preference for ‘tend and befriend’ response. other research like role of fathers shows that fathers can supply the emotional care often assumed to be the province of women.

Question 12

examples of beta bias- moral reasoning theory

Answer 12

Kohlberg’s levels of moral reasoning theory was developed on the basis of studying groups of American males, who all answered questions based on moral dilemmas e.g. the Heinz dilemma. These results were then generalised to represent levels of moral reasoning for both men and women.

Question 13

what is androcentrism?

Answer 13

The consequence of beta bias and occurs when all behaviour is compared according to a ‘male’ standard, often to the neglect or exclusion of women.

Question 14

what are the examples of androcentrism?

Answer 14

1. american psychological association (AMP)
2. prementstrual syndrome

Question 15

example of androcentrism- american psychological association

Answer 15

the american psychological association published a list of the 100 most influential psychologists in the 20th century which included only 6 women. this suggests psychology is a subject produced by men, for men and about men- an androcentric perspective.

Question 16

examples of androcentrism- premenstrual syndrome

Answer 16

premenstrual syndrome has been criticised by feminists as being a social construction, which trivialises female emotion, particularly anger. On the other hand, male anger is seen as a logical response to external pressures (Brescoll and Uhlman).

Question 17

what are the evaluations for gender bias?

Answer 17

1. biological vs social explanations (limitation)
2. sexism in research (limitation)
3. gender- biased research (limitation)
4. feminist psychology (strength)

Question 18

biological vs social explanations (AO3)- limitation

Answer 18

Key point: Gender differences are often seen as fixed (biological) when they may be socially constructed.
Example: Maccoby & Jacklin (1974) suggested girls are better at verbal skills, boys at spatial tasks, leading to stereotypes (e.g., girls as ‘speakers,’ boys as ‘doers’).
Research finding: Daphne Joel et al. (2015) found no brain structure differences by gender, suggesting caution in interpreting such findings.
Counterpoint: Psychologists should still consider biological differences. Research (e.g., Ingalhalikar et al., 2014) shows that women may have better multitasking abilities due to brain connectivity, though stereotypes should still be questioned.

Question 19

sexism in research (AO3)- limitation

Answer 19

Key point: Gender bias can lead to sexism in research, particularly in psychology.
Problem: Men dominate psychology departments and research roles, which may bias study designs and outcomes.
Example: Male researchers may expect women to be less capable, leading to women being excluded or underperforming in complex studies (Nicolson, 1995).

Question 20

gender- biased research (AO3)- limitation

Answer 20

Key point: Research on gender bias is less likely to be published and tends to appear in less prestigious journals.
Study: Formanowicz et al. (2018) found that gender bias research is often undervalued, leading to fewer scholars engaging with it.
Consequence: Gender bias may not be taken as seriously as other biases, such as ethnic bias.

Question 21

feminist psychology (AO3)- strength

Answer 21

Key idea: Feminist psychology believes gender differences come more from social influences (like stereotypes) than biology.
Main argument: While real differences between men and women exist, stereotypes play a bigger role in shaping behavior.
Example: Eagly (1978) said women are seen as less effective leaders than men, but this is due to stereotypes, not their actual abilities.
Goal: Use this knowledge to create programs that help more women become leaders.