Gender AO1-3 Flashcards
Sex and Gender: Sex-role stereotypes
Sex is innate (biological) whereas gender is flexable
Sex role stereotypes:
Societies expectations of what roles are seen to be appropriate are reinforced by parents, teachers and the media
- males are more likely to be shown in professional contexts
- women are more likely to be shown in domestic context
Androgyny and Measuring it (BSRI)
Androgyny means to show an even balance in qualities that are shown In both genders
E.G: a competitive person in the workplace but a sensitive parent
- Androgynous people tend to have more positive health outcomes than one
Bem - Measuring Androgyny
A self report with 60 items on a seven point scale
- 20 Items - male characteristics
- 20 items - female characteristics
- 20 items - gender-neutral characterist
The BSRI is an indicator of psychological well-being and mental health rather than measuring masculinity or feminism
Scores are classified into: masculine, feminine or androgynous
A03:
+ - Serbin identified a positive correlation between androgyny and good mental health
- lower levels of depression in androgynous females
x - OUTDATED - low temporal validity as it is based off typical gender behaviour In the 70s
The role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender
(biology)
From a biological perspective, sex and gender are the same
Differences between males and females are down to biological differences
(46 Chromies organised into pairs)
 One pair of chromosomes are called the sex chromosomes because they determine an individuals biological sex
- Male Structure = XY Female = XX
A mothers egg contains the X chromosome and the fertilising egg holds either an X or Y chromosome
Up to 6 weeks into pregnancy, male and female fetuses look the same.
Around the 6th week, sex chromosomes will begin to have an effect
If the fertilising sperm contained X - gonads develop into Overies
If the fertilising sperm contained Y - Hondas develop into testes
The Y chromosome carries a gene called the SRY gene which causes testes to develop in an XY embryo.
The Testes produces androgens which cause an embryo to be male, without this they would be female
(IF SRY ISN’T ACTIVE THEY WILL BE GIRL)
Role of hormones:
Testosterone - a male hormone which b controls development of male sex organs (linked w/ aggro)
Oestrogen - female hormone, controls female characteristics and menstruation
Oxytocin - women produce more of this than men, Released During Labour to make them in love w/ a baby
AO3:
+ - offenders w/ highest levels of Testorone were more violent
+ - transgender women shown less aggression when testrone levels decrease
x - cultural differences
Mead shown that tribe in Papua New Guinea, both males and females were non-aggressive
Atypical Sex Chromosomes patterns - Klinefelter and Turner’s Syndrome
Klinefelters - biological males who have an additional X chromosome (XXY)
Characteristics:
Physical - Underdeveloped Genitals
Psychological - Poor language skills
Turners - caused by an absence of one of the two allocated X chromosomes (referred to as XO)
- means individual has 45 chromosomes
Physical - webbed neck
Psychological - higher reading ability
AO3:
+ PAs - individuals identified and treated from a young age have significant benefits to their own well being
x - unique sample - individuals with unusual conditions are unlikely to be treated in the same way and so can’t contribute to the general population
Cognitive Explanations of Gender Development - (Kohlberg’s theory - PART 1)
Kohlberg believed that gender development is as a result of thinking and understanding
Gender Schemas develop through environmental interactions
The Stages of Gender Development:
1) Gender Identity - occurs from 2-3 years, child understands they are a boy or girl - but they believe gender can change
2) Gender Stability - occurs from 3-5 years, child understands THEIR gender is fixed but can’t apply this to others
3) Gender Constancy - occurs from 6-7 years, child understands gender remains fixed over time, They are cognitively ready to develop gender roles
AO3:
+ - McConaghy found when a doll was dressed in transparent clothes there was a discrepancy between the clothing and genitals:
- 3-4 years thought clothes determined the gender
This supports Kohlberg’s theory of gender development as it shows gender constancy hasn’t been achieved yet
x - Bandura found children aged 4 said they felt good playing with THIER OWN GENDER toys and felt bad playing with OPPOSITE gender toys
Goes against his theory of gender constancy which he said was @ 6-7 yrs
x - Methodology issues - He interviewed children as young as 2 who may not have been able to express their true thoughts
Cognitive explanations of Gender Development (Gender Schema Theory - PART 2)
[Groups and Gender Consistency]
A gender Schema is an organised set of beliefs on how the two genders act
We learn what is appropriate for our own gender through observation and interaction with others
- Develop from 2 years of age and the focus of a schema is based on your own In Group
In Group - schemas from your own gender - boys hang out w/ boys
Out Group - schemas from others gender - boys aren’t interested in girls
Gender Schemas change as a child’s cognitive ability develops
E.g : as an adult the schemas become more flexable
AO3:
+ - Martin found children were more likely to remember photographs showing Gender consistent behaviour
Children changed the gender of photos showing gender inconsistent behaviour
x - exaggerates the importance of a schema - it ignores other factors such as parental influence and the role of vicarious reinforcement
The Psychodynamic Explanation of Gender Development
Pre-Phallic Children:
- According to Freud, children have no concept of gender identity prior to the phallic stage
The Phallic stage is when the focus of pleasure is on the Gentials, and the child experiences the Oedipus/Electra Complex
Oedipus Complex - desire mum and sees dad as rival, as dad is more powerful, they resolve the conflict by identifying w/ father
Electra Complex - girl discovers she doesn’t have a penis and blames mum, desires dad and hates mum,
She will never get a penis and so switches focus to desire to have children and so identifies with mum
Children must resolve their respective complex’s (identification) which leads to adopting the attitudes of the same sex parent (Internalisation)
AO3:
+ - Wiszewska found women with a good relationship with father were more likely to pick out men who resembled the father as attractive
x - can’t apply to single parent families
x - the case study of Little Hans lacks validity
The Social Learning Theory of Gender Development
- influence of the environment in shaping gender identity
Direct Reinforcement - children are more likely to be praised for showing behaviour that is gender appropriate
Differential Reinforcement - a child learns their gender identity, behaviours that are reinforced are imitated
Indirect Reinforcement - if a consequence of another persons behaviour is praised, it is more likely to be imitated by a child (VISE VERSA)
Identification - when a child attaches itself to a role model (e.g: Dad, Messi etc)
Modelling - child imitated behaviour of a role model
+ Meditational Processes in context of gender ; A.R.R.M
AO3:
+ - Smith and Lloyd found adults interacted with babies differently based on what gender they think they are
E.G: if they were told it was a boy they would select tool shaped toys
+ - explains changes in gender roles
New behaviour can be reinforced and isn’t fixed
x - doesn’t explain how learning processes change with age
E.G: a toddler can’t imitate behaviour of a parent vacuuming because they arnt strong enough, Yet SLT doesn’t consider this
Social Factors effecting gender roles:
Influence of Media + Culture
(FOR AO1 - REFER TO THE SLT EXPLANATION)
AO3:
+ - research into the effects of media on gender roles support the SLT explanation
- Furnham found men where more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within a professional context WHEREAS women were seen in a domestic setting
+ - McGhee found children who watched 25 hours or more of TV held more sex-stereotypes than those who watched 10 hours or less — supports role of media
CULTURAL EXPLANATION
Mead - concluded gender is culturally determined, gender roles are acquired through socialisation
She studied Tribes in Papua New Guinea:
Arapesh - Gentle and Cooperative, (I
Similar to western views of femininity)
Mundugumor - aggressive , (similar to western views of masculinity)
Tchambuli - women were dominant , Men were passive (reverse of western views)
Cultural Similarities - Buss found there were similar patterns of mate preferences in 37 countries across all continents.
Atypical Gender Development
(GID or GD)
Gender Identity Disorder (GID) identify with the opposite sex rather than their own biological sex
Biological Explanations:
- Brain Sex Theory, GID is caused by specific Brain Structures
Zhou found that a particular area within the thalamus (BSTc) is 40% larger in males
In a post-mortem study of 6 male to female transgender people, the BSTc was found to be a similar size of a female brain
Genetic Factors - Coolidge assessed 157 twin pairs and found 62% of GID cases were accounted for by a genetic variance
- similarly, Heylens compared 23 MZ and 21 DZ and found 39% MZ were concordant for GID compared to none for DZ….Suggests there is a heritable component to GID
AO3: Biological:
x - Twin studies are inconclusive
The concordance rate isn’t high (39%) and so makes it difficult to separate from the influence of nature or nurture
Social-Psychological Explanations
GID in males is caused by extreme separation anxiety before gender identity is established
- The child fantasises of a symbolic fusion with the mother to relieve anxiety, meaning the child adopts a female identity
AO3: 
+ - Zucker found of 115 boys who had concerns of their gender identity, 64% diagnosed with GID had depression anxiety
Cognitive Explanations
A child’s personal interests become more dominant than their gender identity which influences gender schemas. This can lead to GID
AO3:
x - Lacks explanation — it doesn’t explain why a child may associate itself with these activities but rather it just says this process exists?
