Gender and Sexuality Flashcards
What are the main historical and social factors that have influenced Buddhist thinking about gender and sexuality?
1) Encounter with Western lifestyles and values with the development of tourism after the 1980s
2) The changing roles of men and women in society outside of religion
3) The rights given to women by secular Thai governments
How has Thailand encountered Western values and lifestyles?
Tourism (including sex tourism) / film and media / education / involvement in WWI and Vietnam War / migration
What changed about tourism to Thailand after the 1980s?
Rapid and significant growth in tourism (nearly doubled over a decade); mass tourist industry and large-scale marketing campaigns (e.g. ‘Visit Thailand’)
How was Thailand impacted by the increase in tourism?
Boost to the Thai economy / exposure to Western values / urbanisation (people moving to cities for jobs) / increase in sex work to meet demands of sex tourism
Give an example of a Western value which Thailand would have encountered through tourism
Individualism / consumerism / secularism / liberal democracy / rationalism
How might sex tourism/increase in sex work be used as an argument for women’s ordination?
Ordination would offer an alternative for working-class women who feel pressured into sex work / more women undertaking vows of celibacy would minimise the spread of HIV/AIDS / full ordination would afford women a higher social status that may protect them from trafficking
How has the Thai Sangha responded to the increase in tourism after the 1980s?
Benefited from the opportunity to spread the Dhamma to the west / have not spoken out against the increase in prostitution since women are not seen as significant to the Sangha / continued refusal to allow ordination of women
What are the traditional roles of men and women in Thai society?
Traditionally patriarchal society where men take on professional roles and women mostly confined to household / some jobs welcomed women such as agriculture, retail, and entertainment / women had to take full responsibility for the running of the household and raising of children when men went to be ordained
How have the roles of men and women changed in Thai society outside religion?
Gender roles have started to evolve as Thailand has been exposed to Western values / more women in the workforce and education, including in positions of power / women now have access to education and make up more than half of university graduates
Give two examples of rights given to women by secular Thai governments
Right to vote (1932) / equal rights and liberties under new constitution (1974) / protection from discrimination under new constitution (1997) / allowed to choose a family name under Name Act (2005) / criminalised marital rape in Domestic Violence Act (2007) / equal rights to divorce in Gender Equality Act (2015)
What are the Mae Chi?
Women who undertake 8-10 monastic precepts but do not receive full ordination or state benefits
What are the positives of joining the Mae Chi?
Opportunity to live an authentic monastic life, undertake a vow of celibacy, study the Dhamma, teach lay Buddhists. / Meaningful opportunity for women who want to live a spiritual life without becoming involved in the debate about the bhikkhuni revival
What are the negatives of joining the Mae Chi?
Often end up as glorified temple servants whose job is to wait on monks / have to wear white so distinguished from real monastics / no educational or financial support from state / could be seen as a way of appeasing Thai women to avoid confronting the issue of ordination
When did the Supreme Patriarch organise the first official meeting of the Mae Chi?
1969
Who first asked the Buddha for a nun’s order?
Ananda (his closest male companion), on the request of Mahapajapati (Buddha’s stepmother)
What was Buddha’s initial response when Ananda asked for female ordination?
That it would shorten the lifetime of the Sangha to less than a thousand years
When Buddha finally approved female ordination, what condition did he place on it?
The Eight Garudhammas - an additional set of precepts regulating gender roles in the Sangha e.g. a nun may not admonish a monk
Why may the Buddha’s response to Ananda/Mahapajapati be seen to reflect a negative attitude to women?
He appears to suggest women are a hindrance to the Dhamma / he forces women into a position that is subservient to monks / it requires a man to persuade the Buddha to ordain women in the first place
Why may the Buddha’s response to Ananda/Mahapajapati NOT be seen to reflect a negative attitude to women?
It may be that the Buddha believes the ordination of women is a risk simply because of the social upheaval it could cause / the Eight Garudhammas may just have been a way for the Buddha to appease those who would have criticised a women’s order / Buddha would also have had concerns about women’s safety given the risks of traditional monastic life (staying in forests, encountering bandits etc.)
What happens in the Dragon King’s Daughter?
The Dragon King’s Daughter studies the Lotus Sutra and receives full enlightenment. She transforms into a Buddha.
What is the message of the Dragon King’s Daughter?
That women, animals, and children (traditionally all seen as incapable of enlightenment) can reach instantaneous Buddhahood through the Mahayana vehicle
Why might the Dragon King’s Daughter be used to support the ordination of women?
It suggests that Buddhanature is common to all, and that women are equally capable of understanding the Dharma
Why might the Dragon King’s Daughter NOT be used to support the ordination of women?
It is not relevant to the debate in Thailand since Thailand is a Theravada country, and would not view it as an authentic scripture
Rita Gross argues that the Buddha was not misogynistic (woman-hating), but was androcentric and patriarchal. What do these two words mean?
Androcentric = sees everything through a male gaze
Patriarchal = places men in positions of power over women
Why is women’s ordination impossible in Thailand?
Because the bhikkhuni lineage died out, and the presence of a bhikkhuni is required to ordain new bhikkhunis - therefore it is technically impossible for any women to now be ordained
Who was the first ordained nun in the revived Theravada order in Thailand?
Dhammananda Bhikkhuni
When, and where, was Dhammananda ordained?
2003, Sri Lanka
Why is Dhammananda unique/controversial in Thailand?
She is the abbess of the only women’s monastery in Thailand
How have the changes to secular women’s rights informed Dhammananda’s actions?
She was able to receive higher education and as a result become more informed about the role of women in Buddhism
What does Sakyadhita mean?
‘Daughters of the Buddha’
When was Sakyadhita established?
1987
What is Sakyadhita?
An organisation dedicated to the welfare and empowerment of Buddhist women worldwide
Who is Sakyadhita open to?
All - anyone can attend their conferences, even men and non-Buddhists
Where do Sakyadhita conferences take place?
Worldwide - although it started in India, it is an international organisation
What are the main obstacles to the ordination of women in Thailand?
The fact that the bhikkhuni lineage has died out / the perception of women as kammically deficient / the established role of the Mae Chi / resistance from monks and other groups who view a bhikkhuni order as corrupting Buddhism
What are the main opportunities currently helping those wishing to establish a women’s order in Thailand?
The new lineage started by Dhammananda / shift in attitudes towards women as a result of secular rights over the last century / the work of Sakyadhita / examples of other countries where a women’s order exists, e.g. Sri Lanka
What are the main moral issues around celibacy?
Whether celibacy should still be treated as an ideal for monks and nuns / whether laypeople should also aspire to live celibately
Why do many Buddhists encourage celibacy?
Sexual contact is a source of craving (tanha) so it is better to resist it altogether / the Buddha once criticised a monk who broke his vow of celibacy by describing him as a “Worthless man” who would have been better off sticking his penis in the mouth of a poisonous snake / celibacy involves clear personal sacrifice which is a positive way for the Sangha to maintain its reputation among laypeople
Why do some Buddhists no longer encourage celibacy?
In Japanese Buddhism, the celibacy rule was dropped and monks can get married / in Tibetan Buddhism, tantric sexual acts are seen as one way to enlightenment so are practiced by some monks and nuns / laypeople have never been forced into celibacy and the Buddha even gives advice on how to have a healthy marriage
What are the main moral issues around marriage?
Whether marriage is still beneficial / whether marriage should be limited to heterosexual couples / whether marriage is for life
Why do some Buddhists encourage marriage?
Celibacy is not a practical ideal for laypeople so marriage gives the best framework for an ethical life / it is a way of developing perfections such as patience and wisdom (Mahayana) / monogamous long-term commitment is a good way to avoid sexual misconduct / marriage and family are a good foundation for teaching the Dharma
Why do some Buddhists not encourage marriage?
Buddha pointed out that there are many difficulties with marriage. “Being past one’s youth, to take a young wife and to be unable to sleep for jealousy of her – this is a cause of one’s downfall.” / Marriage could be seen as encouraging views of a permanent unchanging self, leading to ignorance
Why are there different attitudes to same-sex marriage in Buddhism?
Marriage is cultural/secular so the Buddhist norms may depend on the wider culture / there is little Buddhist agreement on homosexuality generally
Why are there different attitudes to divorce in Buddhism?
Marriage is cultural/secular so the Buddhist norms may depend on the wider culture / it would depend a lot on the reason for divorce and whether the marriage can be fixed
Why has the Dalai Lama suggested marriage is still important?
It is more responsive to human needs and leads to better contentment than the “easy-come, easy-go relationships” which are now the norm in the West
What are the main moral issues around homosexuality?
Whether homosexuality is a natural state, a choice, or a sign of kammic deficiency / whether homosexual couples should have the same rights and be subject to the same norms as heterosexual couples
Why do some Buddhists show a liberal attitude towards homosexuality?
Many Buddhists take the Elephant Keeper story to be very culturally specific and more an issue of the Sangha’s reputation than the wrongness of homosexuality / From 2025 same-sex marriage is now legal in Thailand - many Buddhists recognise that all relationships can be skilful or unskilful
Why do some Buddhists show a negative attitude towards homosexuality?
In the Elephant Keeper story, homosexuals (pandakas) are depicted as being filled with defiling passions and the Buddha is very clear that they are no longer to be ordained / Some Buddhists view homosexuality as a sign of past misdeeds
What are the main moral issues around transgender identity?
Whether or not ‘gender identity’ is real and distinct from biological sex / whether gender transition should be encouraged/supported
Why do some Buddhists encourage the expression of transgender identity?
Gender is already seen as more fluid in Buddhism since we would have been different genders in our past lives / ‘anatta’ means no-self and therefore it makes sense that we are not essentially male or female / if social or medical transition reduces a person’s suffering (dukkha) and helps focus their mind, Buddhists may encourage it
Why are some Buddhists more critical around transgender issues?
Many Buddhists (especially Theravadin) believe gender to be assigned as part of karmic merit/demerit so it is not seen as flexible / attachment to ‘gender identity’ could be seen as belief in a self, discouraged by anatta / desire for transition could be seen as a form of craving (tanha) that will not ultimately be fulfilled
