Gender and Identity

Question 1

Gender

Answer 1

Either of the two sexes, especially when considered with reference to social and cultural differences rather than biological ones.
The term is also used more broadly to denote a range of identities that do not correspond to established ideas of male and female.

Question 2

Sex

Answer 2

The biological differences between male and female e.g. chromosomes and genitalia

Question 3

What is Gender based on?

Answer 3

Some argue that gender is based on biological differences between males and females, most sociologists argue that it is socially constructed.

Question 4

Functionalism

Answer 4

Parsons (1955), females have an ‘expressive role’ in the family. This is natural, and based on their childbearing role, but it is reinforced by socialisation. Males have an ‘instrumental role’ in the family, that of breadwinner and protector. This is also natural, based on their physical strength, but also reinforced through socialisation. These roles are functional for the family and society.

Question 5

Feminism

Answer 5

Argue that gender identity is socially constructed by patriarchal society. It is not only the family that contributes to the social construction of gender. The other agencies of socialisation may also reinforce stereotypical expectations of gender roles.

Question 6

Gender Role Socialisation in the Family (Oakley)

Answer 6

Gender roles are socially constructed through socialisation. Children are socialised into their gender roles by their families in four ways:
1 Manipulation: Encouraging behaviour that is seen as stereotypically acceptable for the child’s gender and discouraging behaviour that is not considered the norm. Examples could include laughing if a boy gets muddy but discouraging a girl from doing anything that would involve getting muddy or dirty.
2 Canalisation: Parents channelling their child’s interests into toys, games and activities that are considered the norm for their gender, such as encouraging girls to go to ballet class and encouraging boys to play football.
3 Verbal appellation: Giving children nicknames or pet names that reinforce gender expectations, such as ‘princess’ for girls, and ‘little monster’ for boys.
4 Different activities: Parents or family members may encourage children to participate in activities around the home that reinforce stereotypes, such as a girl helping with baking, and a boy helping to clean the car.

Question 7

Feminity

Answer 7

A range of feminine identities available in the UK, including the traditional and the less traditional; housewife and mother, but also breadwinner, career woman and single mother.
Feminine identity is often related to a submissive role and associated with a lack of self- confidence and ambition. Feminists argue that this is learned through socialisation, and there is evidence to suggest that this may be changing, albeit slowly.

Question 8

Laddette

Answer 8

‘Laddishness’ refers to a specific form of masculine behaviour, typically involving hardness and not being seen to be making an effort at school.
Jackson (2006) found that some girls, or ‘ladettes’, also spent time drinking and smoking and disrupting lessons, for fear of being considered unpopular and ‘uncool’.
Denscombe (2001) looked at the increase in female risk-taking behaviour, as being related to a ‘ladette’ culture, where young women want to be seen as anything but the stereotype of a woman.

Question 9

Masculinity

Answer 9

Connell (1995) has argued that there are a range
of masculine identities available today, but that hegemonic masculinity (dominant, aggressive) is the most common and the one that is still reinforced most strongly. Other forms of masculinity he identifies, such as subordinate masculinity, which he links to homosexual males, and marginalised masculinity, which he links to unemployed men, are present but not fully accepted as ‘real’ masculinity.

Question 10

Crisis of Masculinity

Answer 10

Mac an Ghaill (1994) used this term to refer to the insecurity felt by working-class men today. There has been a loss of the ‘breadwinner’ identity with the decline of traditional male industries.
Canaan (1996) researched working-class men in Wolverhampton. She questioned both those who were employed and those who were long-term unemployed and found interesting differences in their views of masculinity. When she asked them ‘What is the most important thing about being a man?’, the men who had jobs gave fairly predictable responses relating to fighting, drinking and sexual conquests. Men who were unemployed said that having a job was the most important thing and that they felt emasculated due to their unemployment.