Gender And Culture In Psychology

Question 1

What is gender bias?

Answer 1

This is where psychological theories may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men or women. (Usually women)

Question 2

What is universality?

Answer 2

The aim to create theories/explanations, which apply to ALL people regardless of differences in experience or gender. Reduced by bias

Question 3

What is bias?

Answer 3

The tendency to treat one individual/group differently to another

Question 4

What is alpha bias?

Answer 4

This refers to research which exaggerates the differences between males and females. The differences are normally fixed and inevitable.

Question 5

Give an example of alpha bias in research

Answer 5

Freud’s theory of psychosexual development
- during the phallic stage both boys + girls develop a desire for their opposite gendered parent
- in a boy this creates castration anxiety (fear father will cut his penis off) but is resolved when he identifies with his father.
- A girl’s eventual identification with her same gender parent is weaker which means her superego is weaker (because it develops as a result of taking on the same gender parent’s moral perspective)
- girls/women are seen as morally inferior to men

Question 6

What is beta bias?

Answer 6

Research that ignores or minimises sex differences. These theories often assume the findings from males can apply equally to females and vice versa.

Question 7

Give examples of beta bias in research

Answer 7

• Year 1 studies on attachment
• Research on the fight or flight response

Question 8

Explain how studies on attachment have beta bias

Answer 8

• Year 1 studies on attachment assumed emotional care is provided solely by mothers. But research on the role of fathers shows fathers can supply the emotional care often assumed to be the province of women.

Question 9

Explain how research on the fight or flight response is beta bias

Answer 9

• Research on the fight or flight response assumed that both males and females respond to threatening situations with fight or flight, Taylor et al said this isn’t true and described the “tend and befriend” response. The ‘love’ hormone oxytocin is more plentiful in women and it seems they respond to stress by increasing oxytocin production. This reduces the fight or flight response and enhances a preference for ‘tend and befriend’
• Biological research has generally favoured using male animals because female behaviour is affected by regular hormonal changes due to ovulation. This ignores possible differences.

Question 10

What is androcentrism?

Answer 10

When research is conducted on males. Normal behaviour is judged according to the male standard and seeing females as ‘abnormal’ or ‘deficient’.

Question 11

What is the opposite of androcentrism?

Answer 11

Gynocentrism

Question 12

Give an example of androcentrism in research

Answer 12

Social influence - Milgram and Asch
The diagnostic category premenstrual syndrome

Question 13

How is Asch’s study androcentric?

Answer 13

He investigated conformity using an American male sample which means the sample was limited. Further research suggested women may be more conformists. This means Asch’s research tells us little about conformity in women and is therefore androcentric.

Question 14

How is The diagnostic category premenstrual syndrome androcentric?

Answer 14

It has been objected by feminists on the grounds that it medicalises women’s emotions, such as anger. On the other hand, men’s anger is often seen as a rational response to external pressures.

Question 15

What is culture bias?

Answer 15

A tendency to report all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of one’s own culture, ignoring the effects that cultural differences might have on behaviour.

Question 16

What is cultural bias?

Answer 16

Cultural Bias is the tendency to ignore of judge people in terms of one’s own cultural assumptions.

Question 17

What are the 2 forms of cultural bias?

Answer 17

Alpha bias
Beta bias

Question 18

Describe alpha bias (culture)

Answer 18

Alpha bias occurs when a theory assumes that cultural groups are more different than they actually are.

Question 19

Describe beta bias (culture)

Answer 19

Beta bias occurs when cultural differences are ignored or minimised and all people are assumed to be the same resulting in universal research procedures.

Question 20

What is ethnocentrism?

Answer 20

Seeing the world only from one’s cultural perspective and believing that this one perspective is both normal and correct. Psychological research is usually conducted in US & Europe.

Question 21

Give an example of ethnocentrism in research

Answer 21

Ainsworth and Bell’s Strange Situation for reflecting the norms and values of Western culture.

Question 22

Describe how Ainsworth’s strange situation was ethnocentric

Answer 22

• They conducted research on attachment type, suggesting the ‘ideal’ attachment was characterised by the babies showing moderate amounts of distress when left alone by their mother-figure (typical of secure attachment)
• This led to misinterpretation of childrearing practices in other countries which were seen to deviate from American ‘norm’ e.g. Japanese infants were much more likely to be classed as insecurely attached because they showed considerable distress on separation. It is likely this finding was due to the fact Japanese babies are rarely separated from their mother.
• Her measure of attachment viewed German mother’s attachment as ‘abnormal’ incorrectly as encouraging independence since the child’s infancy is a norm in German culture.

Question 23

What is cultural relativism?

Answer 23

This insists that behaviour can be properly understood only if the cultural context is taken into consideration.

Question 24

What are the 2 different approaches are used to look at behaviours?

Answer 24

Emic approach
Etic approach

Question 25

Define etic approach

Answer 25

Looks at behaviour from outside a given culture and attempts to describe those behaviours as universal.

Question 26

Define emic approach

Answer 26

functions from inside a culture and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture.

Question 27

What is imposed etic?

basically means etic approach

Answer 27

An “imposed” etic bias occurs when an observer attempts to generalise observations from one culture to another.

Question 28

Give examples of imposed etics in research

Answer 28

• Ainsworth and Bell’s research
• Definitions of abnormality

Question 29

How is Ainsworth and Bell’s research an example of an imposed etic?

Answer 29

they studied behaviour inside one culture (America) and then assumed their ideal attachment type (an the method for assessing it) could be applied universally.

Question 30

How are definitions of abnormality an example of an imposed etic?

Answer 30

Jahoda’s criterion is based on individualistic norms such as ‘Independence’ this is not reflective of collectivist cultures.

Question 31

How can culture bias be avoided?

Answer 31

By being aware of cultural relativism.