Gender Flashcards
Six Variables of Gender
Chromosomal - XX - female, XY - male Gonadal - ovaries and testes Hormonal - oestrogen and progesterone, testosterone Internal accessory organs - uterus and vagina, prostate and seminal vesicles External accessory organs - clitoris and vaginal opening, penis and scrotum Assigned - birth gender
Reassignment of Gender
- major current controversy
- clinical care of people with inter sexuality and related disorders
- true sex policy
- prevalent in first half of 20th century
- gonadal status primary
- optimal gender policy
- Money and paediatric endocrine group at John Hopkins (1950’s)
Chromosomal Sex
Sex hormones
- organisational effect
- activation effect
Differentiated testes produce:
- mullerian inhibiting hormone: inhibits development of Müllerian duct system into female reproductive system (defeminise)
- androgen hormones: encourage the development of the wolffian system (masculinise)
Sex Differentiation
The binary sex - male - men - female - women Genital differentiation - organisational disorder
Sexual Development Disorder:
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS)
- complete or partial
- in adulthood, most female with sexual desire for men
- chromosomal: XY (male)
- assigned: female
- rearing: girl
- behaviour: female
Sexual Development Disorder:
Adrenogenital Syndrome
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
- females have ovaries but external genitalia partly/completely male appearance
- chromosomal: XX (female)
- assigned: female
- rearing: girl
- behaviour: more masculine, less feminine than controls
Berenbaum and Hines (1992)
Hines and Kaufman (1994)
- behaviour of CAH girls
- more likely to choose male toys
- do not differ in rough and tumble play
- contradicts research in the area of aggression
Meyer-Bahlburg et al (2004)
- 15 CAH girls, 30 control girls, 16 control boys
- 2 gender play observations (scores of gender confusion and dysphoria)
- mothers: questionnaire on gender related behaviour
- CAH girls more masculine that control girls on all gender related scales
- gender identity interview showed no difference from controls/trends
Berenbaum (1999)
- 24 CAH girls, 15 CAH boys, 16 unaffected sisters, 24 unaffected brothers
- control: significant sex typed preferences
- CAH girls: differed significantly from controls
- CAH boys: no significant difference from controls
Sexual Development Disorder: Cloacal Exstrophy (CE)
- boys: failure of descent of testes to the scrotum (cryptorchidism) and urine opening above phallus (epispadias)
- reassignment often attempted to turn CE boys to girls
- psychological and emotional terms controversial
- neonatal assignment has been advocated for CE males to overcome phallic inadequacy
Reiner and Gearhart (2004)
- 16 genetic males (15-16 y.o.)
- 14 underwent neonatal assignment to female
- 8 declares themselves male during the study (2 raised male)
- 5 living as female
- 3 living as unclear gender identity
- all 16 had interests and attitudes considered typically male
Guevedoces
or
Machihembras
“penis at 12 people”
Juliane Imperato-McGinley et al (1974)
- 38 with deficiency for dihysrotestosterone: ambiguous genitalia
- 18 raised as female
- puberty: voice deepened and grow adult sized penis
- 16 assumes male gender role successfully
- testosterone boost at puberty can significantly affect gender role
Critique
- Bem (1993)
The Critical Period
Money and Ehrnhart (1972)
- up until 18 months a child’s gender may be reassigned almost arbitrarily
- after that age can cause serious conflict in the child and development in the gender is unlikely
- inline with cognitive development theory
Critique
- argument against environment being important to form gender identity (Diamond et al, 1965, Rogers and Walsh, 1982)
The Money Twins
Money and Ehrnhart (1972)
- babies blank slate
- gender identity formed from environmental influences
- theory and greater ease of surgery in turning boys to girls influence parents and doctors in deductions about children born with malformed or ambiguous genitalia
Money’s Guidelines
Reassignment should be to the gender with the best prognosis of:
- good reproductive function (if attainable)
- good sexual function
- normal looking external genitalia
- normal physical appearance
- stable gender identity
- all foster healthy psychosocial adaptation
- should be early, latest 18-24 months
- should be minimal ambiguity for doctors and parents about final decision and subsequent rearing
