Gender -

Question 1

What is the definition of someone’s sex?

Answer 1

The biological differences between males and females including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy.

Question 2

What is the definition of gender?

Answer 2

The psychological and cultural differences between males and females including attitudes, behaviours and social roles.

Question 3

What is the definition of gender identity disorder?

Answer 3

When a persons biologically prescribed sex does not reflect the way they feel inside and the gender they identify themselves as.

Question 4

What is the definition of androgyny?

Answer 4

Displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics is someone’s personality.

Question 5

How do you measure androgyny?

Answer 5

Bem’s sex - role inventory (BSRI) 1974.
This was the first systematic attempt to measure androgyny. It uses 60 traits (20 male, 20 female, 20 neutral) where respondents rate themselves to produce scores across masculine, feminine, androgynous and undifferentiated.

Question 6

Evaluation of BSRI?

Answer 6

+ Valid (when piloted with over 1000 students, the results were similar with their own description of their gender identity)
+ Good test - retest reliability

• Idea that those are androgynous are more psychologically healthy can be criticised (others found those with more masc traits are more healthy)
• Oversimplifies complex concept
• Cultural and historical bias
• Using questionnaires can be subjective and biased.

Question 7

What is the role of chromosomes in sex and gender?

Answer 7

There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in the human body and it is the 23rd pair which determines our biological sex. XX for females, XY for males.
Androgens are the male sex hormones which make the embryo become male.

Question 8

What are the 2 main hormones in the role of sex and gender?

Answer 8

Testosterone - male

Oestrogen - female

Question 9

Evaluation of role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender?

Answer 9

+ evidence supports (David Reimer, AIS)
+ transgender evidence (Stephanie Van Goozen 1955, gender related behaviours)

• Contradicting evidence (Tricker double blind study - no changes in aggression when injected testosterone)
• Overemphasis on nature
• Oversimplifies complex concept

Question 10

What is Klinefelters syndrome?

Answer 10

Example of a - typical chromosome pattern
Affects 1 in 500/1000 males. They have an extra X chromosome (XXY) 
- Physical characteristics:
Reduced body hair
Breast development (gynecomastia) - breast cancer
Rounding of body contours 
Long limbs
Problems with co - ordination 
- Psychological problems:
Poor language skills
Passive and shy
Poor memory and problem solving

Question 11

What is Turners syndrome?

Answer 11

Example of a - typical chromosome pattern
Affects 1 in 5000 females - they lack an X chromosome (X0) 
- Physical characteristics 
No menstrual cycle
Sterile (ovaries don't develop) 
No breasts 
Webbed neck
- Psychological characteristics
Higher than average reading ability 
Poor spatial, visual memory and maths
Socially immature

Question 12

Evaluation of a - typical sex chromosome patterns?

Answer 12

+ Adds to nature side of nature - nurture debate
+ Practical application (help treatments)

• Ignores social explanations (environment)
• Unusual sample (not generalisable)
• Ethics (that there is a typical and an a - typical)

Question 13

What is Kohlberg’s (1966) cognitive explanation?

Answer 13

The idea that a child’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age.
They go through 3 stages:
Gender Identity (Age 2) Child can correctly label themselves as male or female but think gender can change (by changing clothes)
Gender stability (age 4) gender stays the same over time but gender can change when doing opposite activities.
Gender constancy (age 7) aware that gender stays the same over time and situations.
Once a child has reached stage 3 they go on an active search for evidence which confirms.

Question 14

Evaluation of Kohlberg’s theory?

Answer 14

+ evidence supports (Slaby and Frey 1975 - children who had reached gender constancy spent longer looking at same sex role model)
+ biological approach supports (theory is based on that the stages are influenced by child’s brain development)
- Constancy may occur earlier (as young as 4)
- Methodological issues (interviews - leading questions, children may have lacked vocab to articulate feelings properly)
- cannot explain individual differences

Question 15

What is Martin and Halversons gender schema theory?

Answer 15

Agrees with Kohlberg that understanding develops with age but think it occurs much earlier - children start to develop gender identity at the age of 2 - 3. They establish their own identity, in group, and the opposite is the out group.
They then actively seek information about appropriate behaviours and actions of their own group - build their gender schemas.

Question 16

Evaluation of gender schema theory?

Answer 16

+ evidence supports (Martin and Little found that children as young as 4 showed very strong sex typed behaviours)
+ can explain rigidity of gender beliefs
+ compliments Kohlberg’s theory (gender schema describes organisation of information, gender constancy describes motivation)

• overemphasises role of individual (environment plays more of a role)
• key assumptions not supported (you can’t change someone’s beliefs by changing schemas)

Question 17

What is Freud’s psychodynamic approach to gender development?

Answer 17

• Children go through 5 psychosexual stages of development (oral,anal,phallic,latent,genital) where different conflicts are encountered which must be resolved. Failure leads to fixation or regression.
• Importance of phallic stage: Oedipus (castration anxiety) and Electra (penis envy) complexes.
• This is resolved by identifying with same sex parent and internalising their views and attitudes - gender identity developed.

Question 18

Key study linking to Freud’s psychodynamic theory?

Answer 18

Little Hans case study.
Fear of being bitten by horses after seeing horse collapse.
Freud interpreted this as his fear of being bitten was actually a fear of castration - placed fear of father onto horses through displacement.

Question 19

Evaluation of Freud’s psychodynamic theory?

Answer 19

• no support for complexes - Mussen and Rutherford 1963, those with warm and supportive fathers identified more (contradicts identification is dependent on fear).
• gender bias - work on electra complex was by Carl Jung - penis envy criticised as reflecting patriarchal and repressive society which he lived - cultural concept.
• nuclear family bias - Green 1978, 37 children raised by gay/transgender parents, only 1 had gender identity issues and was non - typical.
• lack of scientific rigour - untestable (unconscious can’t test), Popper said it is a ‘pseudoscience’ as is not falsifiable.
• ignores other approaches - Kohlberg, gender identity gets more sophisticated over time.

Question 20

What is the social learning theory on gender development?

Answer 20

Learning by imitation. - copy same sex role models.
Parents reinforce behaviour which is seen as gender appropriate - differential reinforcement, gender appropriate behaviours are rewarded and others are punished making them less likely to be repeated.
Vicarious reinforcement - observing others consequences.
Children identify with same sex role models and imitate them.
Also suggested 4 meditational processes: Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation.

Question 21

Key study linking to social learning theory on gender development?

Answer 21

Perry and Bussey 1979, children were shown films of older people carrying out activities such as choosing a piece of fruit.
When they were in a room with the same fruit, they choose the same fruit that the same sex role model selected - modelled their behaviour.

Question 22

Evaluation of the social learning approach to gender development?

Answer 22

+ supporting evidence - Bandura’s bobo doll, Smith and Lloyd 1978, adults acted differently to children assumed to be certain gender.
+ explains changing western societies - shift in social expectations so new acceptable gender behaviour has been reinforced - better explained by SLT than biological.

• single parent families (less role models) still show SLT- models not as important.
• ignores biological approach (David Reimer) - causes problems with homosexuality - biosocial theory more popular (innate differences reinforced)
• sees children as passive - actually much more active in learning.

Question 23

What is the influence of culture on gender?

Answer 23

Helps nature/nurture debate - if something is consistent across cultures then we would conclude it is innate and visa versa.
Mead 1935: gender roles different to western societies.
- Arapesh men and women fitted feminine stereotype.
- Mungugumor men and women fitted masculine stereotype.
- Tchambuli men and women behaviour opposite.
Buss 1989 - 37 cultures similarities.
- in all cultures women seek men with wealth and resources.
- in all cultures men seek women with youth and physical attractiveness.

Question 24

Evaluation of studies on culture and gender?

Answer 24

• investigator effects - participants act differently due to researcher presence.
• communication - researcher may be misinformed or not understand.
• observer bias - Mead especially criticised (Freeman argued her findings her influenced by her own views).
• imposed etics - Berry 2002, idea that western researchers impose own culture on subjects. (solved by having someone from population on team).
• unclear as to nature or nurture.

Question 25

What is the influence of media on gender?

Answer 25

The media provides role models who children can identify with and imitate.
Bandura and Bussey 1999 - men are portrayed and independent and ambitious while women are dependent, unambitious and emotional.
Those who have higher exposure to stereotypes display more stereotypical gender roles. (McGhee and Frueh)

Question 26

What is a key study linking to media influences on gender?

Answer 26

Notel study - Williams 1985.
Studied Canadian community with no TV (Notel) and compared it to 2 other towns; Unitel (TV access to 1 channel) and Multitel (access to many channels).
Accessed behaviour and attitudes of children and found that Notel and much weaker sex typed views than those in Multitel.
Re - assessed 2 years after intoduction of TV in Notel and views had become more sex typed.

Question 27

Evaluation of media studies of gender?

Answer 27

• correlation not causation - media output reflects norms and values - therefore direct tuition more important.
• affect of media hard to control due to differential exposure - however Notel study supports role of media.
• biological theories underplayed - however Bandura didn’t deny role as sees them as starting point)

Question 28

What is gender identity disorder?

Answer 28

Also known as ‘gender dysphoria’.
Characterised by strong, persistent feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort in own gender. They want to live as a gender of the opposite sex and dress and behave as so.

Question 29

What are the biological explanations for gender dysphoria?

Answer 29

BRAIN SEX THEORY: suggests GID is caused by specific brain structures that are incompatible with a persons biological sex - especially areas of the brain which are dimorphic (take different forms in males and females).
Ning Zhou 1995, post mortem studies of 6 male to female transgenders - BSTc was similar size of a typical female brain.
GENETIC FACTORS: GID has genetic basis.
Heylens 2012, compared 23 MZ and 21 DZ twins where one pair was diagnosed with GID - 39% of MZ were concordant, 0 of DZ.

Question 30

What are the social - psychological explanations for gender dysphoria?

Answer 30

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY - Ovesey and Person 1973, GID caused by extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has developed. Child create symbolic fusion with mother to relive anxiety - child identifies and internalises mothers identity.
Stoller 1973, GID males display close mother-son relationships.
COGNITIVE EXPLANATION - Liben and Bigler 2002, extension of gender schema theory - dual pathway theory - first pathway: gender schema, second pathway: child’s gender attitudes are affected by their activity - leads to non - sex typed schema.

Question 31

Evaluation of gender identity disorder explanations?

Answer 31

• contradicting evidence of BSTc - Hulshoff Pol 2006, hormone treatment affected size of BSTc - result of hormone treatment not cause of GID.
• twin studies inconclusive - low concordance rates, nature vs nurture, small sample (cannot be generalised).
• over simplify - complex condition not down to single influence.
• issues with psychoanalytic theory - ignores females, hard to test, more to do with absence of father than fear of separation from mother (Rekers)
• issues with cognitive theory - doesn’t explain where interests in opposite sex activities comes from - descriptive not explanatory.