Gender

Question 1

What are the biological influences on gender?

Answer 1

Influence of hormones and genes

Evolutionary explanations

Question 2

What are 3 influences linked to hormones and genes?

Answer 2

1. Chromosomes- sex of a baby is determined at the moment of conception, 23rd pair of chromosomes determines the sex of the baby. XX = GIRL XY= BOY
2. Hormones- Between 4-8 weeks after conception the gene on the 23rd chromosome instructs the gonads to release hormones. Testes-testosterone for boys. Without testosterone the embryo would develop into a girl.
3. Neural differences- Clear differences can be seen in the brains of men and women. The sexually dimorphic nucleus. Swaab and Fliers (1985) found that the volume was 2.5 times larger in men than women and was 2.2 cells more.

Question 3

What are the three limitations of the influence of genes and hormones?

Answer 3

• Socially sensitive- says that men and women are better at some stuff compared to others
• Reductionist- Takes the nature side of the nature/nurture. Ignores culture
• Deterministic- Ignores the role of free will states that masculine behaviour is inevitable if you are biologically male.

Question 4

What is a huge supporting study by Money and Erhardt (1972) that supports the role of biology?

Answer 4

David Reimer
In 1965 identical twin boys in Canada were born - Bruce and Brian.
At 6 months old they had trouble urinating so had to have an operation and Bruce’s penis was accidently burnt off.
Parents did not know what to do so approached Money who thought that gender is determined by socialisation.
At 22 months had a reconstruction and hormone treatments and was renamed Brenda and raised a girl. By 13 she felt wrong and was deeply troubled and her parents finally revealed the truth. Within months they became David Reimer and had a penis reconstructed. David later married and lived for many years as a male.
Hugely supports biology as was born a male and felt wrong when socialised as a girl.

Question 5

What is the further research that supports genes and hormones by Reiner and Gearheart (2004)?

Answer 5

Studied 16 genetic males born with almost no penis. Two were raised as males and remained as males. The other 14 were raised as females and of these 8 reassigned themselves back to males by age 16. Shows biology overrides.

Question 6

What are the two evolutionary explanations of gender differences?

Answer 6

It is more common for men to be promiscuous
Men are more likely to be aggressive
Gender differences in cognition

Question 7

What is the ‘it is more common for men to be promiscuous’ evolutionary explanation?

Answer 7

The reason for this is through parental investment. Evolutionary explanation explains that we want to pass on our genes and aid survival. The gender differences and purpose for this is very different.
Men’s parental investment is that men can impregnate a woman everyday so its not as important for them to be overly picky when choosing a female. Also handy to impregnate more women so that ensured genes are passed on through several offspring.
Women need to be more cautious as they are only fertile for once a month so means they need to get it right as carry a baby for nine months.
May explain why it is socially acceptable for men to be more promiscuous

Question 8

What is a limitation of the theory that it’s more common for men to be promiscuous?

Answer 8

Deterministic- Doesn’t relate to that we have free will and can choose not to be promiscuous
However Clark and Hatfield carried out a study where people were approached by a attractive stranger of the opposite sex. 75% men consented to a request of sex and 0% women said yes.

Question 9

What is a strength of the theory that its more common for men to be promiscuous?

Answer 9

Buss (1989) found evidence that women want to be more picky about their partners in order to care for her and her offspring. Looked at what males and females wanted in a marriage using over 10,000 participants . Found that women more than men desired mates who were ‘good financial prospects’

Question 10

What is the evolutionary explanation that men are likely to be more aggressive?

Answer 10

It is generally accepted than men are more aggressive than women and the majority of the aggression is aimed at males. Could relate to that males were once in competition with one another to secure a mate with which to reproduce. Strongest male got the pick of the females so wanted to show this.

Question 11

What are the two issues of the theory that men are likely to be more aggressive?

Answer 11

• Socially sensitive- legitimises the act of aggression just because of gender
• Takes the nature side of the nature/nurture- could be many environmental factors involved such as its seen as socially acceptable for men to be more aggressive.

Question 12

What is a strength of the theory that men are likely to be more aggressive by Daly and Wilson (1985)?

Answer 12

Carried out a study which reviewed conflicts resulting in murder in Detroit 1972. Found that the majority of murder cases involved elements of status and competition. Also the murderers seemed willing to risk death rather than lose face. Supports evolutionary explanation as it shows male aggression is motivated by competitive drive.

Question 13

What is the evolutionary explanation that there are gender differences in cognition?

Answer 13

Men and women have different cognitive abilities. Men are better at visuo-spatial tasks such as reading maps whereas women are better at language analytical skills such as expressing opinion clearly. These skill differences can be explained by looking at our evolutionary past. Men were the providers and therefore spent a lot of their time hunting. This meant they developed coordination for aiming and throwing and improved their spatial abilities. Women’s language skills developed through their role as nurturer and carer and spent a lot of time in large groups in the camps. Good communication skills would’ve been essential.

Question 14

What are the limitations of gender differences in cognition?

Answer 14

• Nature side- shown that society can shape different genders abilities by giving boys and girls specific tasks
• Unfalsifiable- no evidence to say due to evolution

Question 15

What are the social influences on gender?

Answer 15

Social learning theory explains that children observe their role models who are:

• Parents
• Peers
• Schools
• Media

Question 16

How does the social learning theory work in influencing gender development?

Answer 16

1. Observe the gendered behaviour
2. Retain the gendered behaviour
3. Imitating the gendered behaviour
4. Being reinforced either positively or negatively and continuing or not continuing with the behaviour

Question 17

How do parents influence gender?

Answer 17

The parents either provide positive or negative reinforcement for gender appropriate behaviour and in this way the child will only carry on performing the appropriate gender behaviour according to their parents views.

Question 18

How do peers influence gender?

Answer 18

Role models of gender appropriate behaviour and make it clear what gender appropriate behaviour is and what is not.

Question 19

How do schools influence gender?

Answer 19

Schools maintain gender stereotyped behaviours, hidden curriculum that shapes gender roles which children will pick up on and understand

Question 20

How does the media influence gender?

Answer 20

Provides young children with a lot of information about how men are women are supposed to act to fit with their gender. Media is very gender stereotyped and powerful in shaping peoples gender identity.

Question 21

What are the limitations/issues with the social influences of gender?

Answer 21

• Nurture side, doesn’t consider biology such as David Reimer case
• Deterministic, people can actively rebel against stereotypes to have a more independent existence

Question 22

What is research to support the role of parents in influencing gender by Fagot and Leinbach (1989)?

Answer 22

Longitudinal study on children to prove that parents encourage/discourage gender appropriate behaviour even before age 2. By age 20-24 months daughters were reinforced to dance, dressing up, asking for help and playing with dolls. They were negatively reinforced for manipulating objects, running, jumping and climbing.
Sons were often told off for playing with dolls.
Shows parents shape Children’s gender through reinforcement

Question 23

What is research to support the role of schools in influencing gender by Serbin et al (1979)?

Answer 23

Nine female pre-school teachers were asked to introduce a new toy each day to a class of 3-4 children. Toys were either stereotypically male or female or gender neutral. Researchers found that the teacher called on boys to demonstrate the fishing set and called on more girls to demonstrate the sewing set
Shows teachers have pre-existing beliefs about gender appropriate behaviours and transmit this to their children.

Question 24

What is research to support the role of media in influencing gender by Williams (1986)?

Answer 24

Examined gender role stereotypes in three towns in Canada nicknamed: ‘Notel’(No TV), Unitel (One TV channel) and multitel (4 channels)
Gender stereotyping was much more common in the towns with television channels than the one without.
Notel was later introduced with TV and increased gender roles and stereotyping.
Shows viewing gender stereotypes can have a direct impact on viewers

Question 25

How can culture have an affect on influencing gender?

Answer 25

The role models from which you learn from are the ones that belong to the same culture as you. Cultural differences can influence gender roles.

Question 26

What are the three cultures that have been researched to show influence on gender?

Answer 26

• Margarita (Venezuela)
• Former Soviet Union
• Australia vs Estonia

Question 27

How has culture caused gender roles to develop in Margarita?

Answer 27

On this island women are extremely aggressive and physical to women and men.
In this culture women are frequently left to fend for themselves and their children in a harsh environment. High levels of aggression aid survival so this has become a part of the female gender role in this culture.

Question 28

How has culture caused gender roles to develop in the Former Soviet Union?

Answer 28

Riska (2001) reported that in the former soviet union 77% doctors were female which contrasts largely with Western cultures.
In this country industrial employment is viewed more positively in terms of status and salary than healthcare. Men prefer to work in the industry which leaves healthcare jobs for women.

Question 29

How has culture caused gender roles to develop in Australia vs Estonia?

Answer 29

Tiggeman and Ruutel (2004) compared 394 Australian participants with 415 Estonian participants and had to fill in the Sex role concerns inventory which measured nine attributes according to how important they are for women to achieve satisfaction.
Estonians rated being a mother and good homemaker more important than the Australians.
At the time of this study the Estonians had experienced a culture shift having broke away from Australia and experienced more traditional gender roles.

Question 30

What are the two issues and debates linked to cultural influences on gender roles?

Answer 30

Takes the nurture side

Deterministic as ignoring free will as not everyone will conform.

Question 31

What is a strength of cultural influences by Margaret Mead?

Answer 31

Carried out an ethnographic study on three tribes in New Guinea. Found that all tribes had different gender roles showing that gender roles are transmitted through our culture not biology

Question 32

What were criticisms of Margaret Mead’s research into cultural factors?

Answer 32

-Widely criticised as demonstrated researcher bias and didn’t consider any extraneous variables such as social transition.

Question 33

What is another limitation of cultural influences on gender roles by Whiting and Edwards (1975)?

Answer 33

Found cultures have very similar gender roles
Looked at 11 non western societies and found that girls were given more domestic and household roles and boys were given tasks outside the house. Strongly suggests gender roles are determined by biology not culture

Question 34

What is the biosocial approach to gender development by Money and Erhardt (1972)?

Answer 34

Proposed that there are a number of critical events that affect the early development of a child and begin before a child is born. Once born social factors then take over as the child is stereotypically brought up as their gender by society
Some individuals known as intersex children who have ambiguous genitals if reared before their third birthday as a particular gender then social and psychological factors can assign their gender identity.
When adults refer to a child they refer to the child determined by their gender and act differently depending.

Question 35

What is a study by Smith and Lloyd (1978) that illustrates the biosocial approach?

Answer 35

Babies aged 6 months were dressed as either males or females. Then recorded how a group of women would respond to them. Women were seated in front of some toys that were stereotypically male (hammer), female (doll) and neutral (rattle). The researchers told the women that the study was on play and asked the baby to play in front of them.
Found that the biological sex of the baby heavily influenced the way that the women played with the babies. Only the babies perceived as girls were offered the doll and boys given hammer or rattle. Boys also encouraged to be more vigorous in play. Shows how the biological sex of the baby clearly affected the way in which they were treated by the women.

Question 36

What are the strengths of issues and debates with the biosocial approach?

Answer 36

-Less deterministic - sees gender as being a lot less fixed
-Less socially sensitive - doesn’t see gender roles as destiny
Takes both the nature and nurture side of the debate

Question 37

What is a criticism of Money and Erhardt’s theory of the biosocial approach?

Answer 37

David Reimer shows that the biosocial approach is wrong as it shows that biology alone determines gender but however this was one unusual case as the findings cant be generalised

Question 38

What is another criticism of the biosocial approach by Van Goozen et al? (1994)

Answer 38

Studied 35 female-male and 15 male-female transsexuals and they completed a questionnaire based on their proneness to aggression before and after treatment. Female-male given testosterone and reported an increase in aggression proneness - shows a role for biology alone as they showed more masculine behaviour.

Question 39

What is gender dysphoria?

Answer 39

When a person has a desire to live as the opposite sex to which they have been registered at birth. Usually undergo treatment and surgery.

Question 40

What are the biological explanations of gender dysphoria?

Answer 40

Idea that the brain of the person is the opposite to their body in gender terms, found to be differences in the hypothalamus:

-The BST (bed nucleus of the stria terminalis)
Zhou et al (1995) Studied the hypothalamus of six male-female transsexuals. The BST plays roles in regulating sex hormones and in sexual behaviour. Men normally have 44% more volume in their BST than women. This was measured in all 6 participants and it was found that their BST was much closer to a woman’s average size. Shows transsexuals have brain that correspond to the opposite sex.

-Somatostatin neurons
Kruijiver et al (2000) studied neurons in the hypothalamus in 42 participants. Somatostatin neurons serve a number of functions such as regulating the thyroid gland and growth hormone. Men normally have twice the number of these somatostatin neurons than women. Researchers found that the number of neurons transsexuals had corresponded with their preferred sex. Shows they have brains that correspond to the opposite sex.

Question 41

What are the five limitations of the biological explanation of gender dysphoria?

Answer 41

• Takes nature side and is therefore reductionist
• Unreliable as results haven’t been consistently found
• Based on very small sample sizes
• Deterministic as suggests inevitable if your brain is made up in certain ways
• Researchers haven’t managed to narrow it down to just the hypothalamus as the brain is very complex.

Question 42

What is the psychological explanation of gender dysphoria?

Answer 42

Ovesey and Person (1974) say that male gender dysphoria comes from early intense separation anxiety which is when a child craves their mother’s attention. Theory states that in order to alleviate distress caused by separation anxiety, the young boy will act in a feminine way because he craves feminine presence. The boy will then confuse being his mother to having her near and will continually act in a feminine way.

Question 43

What is a strength of the psychological explanation of gender dysphoria by Coates and Person (1985)?

Answer 43

Studied 25 ‘extremely feminine’ boys with gender dysphoria. Found that 15 of them met the criteria of separation anxiety. Shows a link between the two elements.

Question 44

What is another strength of the psychological explanation of gender dysphoria by Lowry and Zucker (1991)?

Answer 44

In a similar study with a sample of 29 boys with gender dysphoria, 55% were diagnosed with separation anxiety.

Question 45

What are two limitations of the psychological explanation of gender dysphoria?

Answer 45

• Takes nurture side and completely ignores the role of biological factors and other psychological factors.
• Theory is gender biased as only explains how males develop gender dysphoria and cant explain why females do.

Question 46

What is the biosocial explanation of gender dysphoria?

Answer 46

Possible that people born with a biological predisposition for gender dysphoria, this may then need to be triggered by an environmental factor such as separation anxiety.

Question 47

What are the two psychological explanations of gender development?

Answer 47

• Cognitive developmental theory: Kohlbergs theory

- Gender Schema Theory

Question 48

What is Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental theory?

Answer 48

Kohlberg (1966) argued that gender development can be broken down into 3 stages:
Stage one: GENDER IDENTITY
Ages 2-3 years of age and children can label boys and girls based on physical appearances.

Stage two: GENDER STABILITY
Ages 4-5 years of age and children realise that gender stays stable over time, girls-women and boys-men

Stage three: GENDER CONSTANCY
Ages 5-7 years of age, children know that an individual’s gender is constant whatever they do e.g. cutting your hair.
Say that this stage must be reached in order for children to start considering their gender identity. Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) called this process self socialisation when children start paying attention to same sex role models and start imitating them.

Question 49

What are the issues and debates involved with Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental theory?

Answer 49

Culture bias as makes the assumption that all children develop in this way, however has been found that found in other cultures.

Because it’s a cognitive developmental theory it takes into account psychological and social factors. The social factors are what makes the psychological factors occur.

Question 50

What is the main supporting research for Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental theory by Slaby and Frey (1975)?

Answer 50

55 children aged 2-5.5 given an interview to test gender identity, stability and constancy.

1. To measure gender identity they were shown images of people or dolls and asked ‘is this a boy or girl?’
2. To measure gender stability they asked ‘when you grow up will you be a mummy or a daddy?’
3. To measure gender constancy they asked ‘If you wore a dress would you be a boy or girl?’ and ‘if you played football would you be a boy or a girl?’

2-6 weeks later the children were retested and shown a 5 min film split into two screens depicting a male and a female image. The observer observed the amount of time the child spent looking at each side of the screen.

Question 51

What were the findings of Slaby and Frey’s research?(1975)

Answer 51

Based on the children having right or wrong answers, 97% achieved gender identity, 75% gender stability and 50% gender constancy.
Children who had achieved gender constancy were more likely to spend time attending to the same-sex models in the film.
Shows that children go through stages in the order that Kohlberg suggested.
Children who had achieved gender constancy are most interested in the same sex models perhaps because they can identify with them as they have reached the stage where they have a full understanding of their gender.

Question 52

What is the main limitation of Kohlberg’s theory?

Answer 52

Much research has showed that girls and boys by their third birthday prefer sex appropriate toys and prefer same sex playmates. This is several years before gender constancy and cant be argued that all gender role behaviour depends on gender constancy.

Question 53

What is the gender schema theory (psychological explanation of gender development)?

Answer 53

Collections of information that we associate with gender and the connotations along with it. For example:
Male schema- wears trousers, more aggressive, short hair, flat shoes.
Female schema- Wears skirts, gentle, long hair, makeup and makeup
Depend on the culture we live in and children construct schemas as soon as they realise there are two genders.
It’s a label that affects our decisions e.g. not playing with dolls if a boy

Question 54

What is a prediction made by the gender schema theory?

Answer 54

Older children should show more gender appropriate behaviour due to having a larger gender schema so have a better understanding of what it means to be male or female.

Question 55

What is a strength of the approach of the gender schema theory?

Answer 55

Accepts psychological and social approaches unlike biological. Gender schema is the psychological and the observation of role models is the social approach.

Question 56

What is supporting research of the gender schema theory by Bradbard et al? (1986)

Answer 56

Studied 4-9 year olds, given neutral objects such as pizza cutters and burglar alarms and told they were either boys or girls items. Boys naturally explored the ‘boys’ item more than girls and vice versa. One week later boys could recall more about the ‘boy’ item whereas girls could recall more about the ‘girl’ item.

Question 57

What is a limitation of the gender schema theory by Bandura and Bussey (1992)?

Answer 57

Argue that gender knowledge doesn’t always lead to the display of gender appropriate behaviour. Just because they know cultured stereotypes doesn’t mean they will conform to that.

Question 58

What is another limitation of the gender schema theory based on measuring?

Answer 58

Measuring gender appropriate behaviour is subjective as not everyone agrees with what is male or female behaviours so it is hard to measure the size of a person’s gender schema.

Question 59

What is a strength of the gender schema theory?

Answer 59

When compared to Kohlberg’s theory it can explain why children demonstrate gender behaviour before the age at which gender constancy is reached as states all we need is an understanding of whether we are male or female to show gender appropriate behaviour.