Gender Flashcards
To become fluent in recall for exam response
Explain how males and females are different
Obvious physical differences, but other differences include extraversion, agreeableness, narcissism, psychopathy, social dominance, enjoying casual sex, self esteem and overall wellbeing (Scmitt, 2014)
Define sex
Biological/physical aspects of being male or female
Define gender
Behavioural, experimental and social dimensions of being male or female
Define gender roles
Societal expectations for normal and appropriate male and female behaviour and occupations
Define gender stereotypes
Fixed ideas about men’s and women’s traits, capabilities, occupations and behaviours
Define gender identity
Personal view of oneself as male or female
Define gender differences
Any cognitive, behavioural or physical features that differ statistically between genders (National Institute of Health, 2011)
Define intersex
Person born with ambiguous genitalia or genitalia that does not match their chromosomal sex
Define biological differences
Any gender differences attributable to genetics and hormones
Define environmental differences
Gender differences attributable to environmental factors
Define interactions
Interplay between biological and environmental factors in the construction of gender
Define masculinity/femininity
A measure of culturally appropriate/expected (constructed) attributes of men and women
How do psychologists commonly measure masculinity and femininity?
The 1974 Bem Sex Role Inventory or the 1975 Person Attributes Questionnaire (Helmreich and Stapp)
What is androgyny?
Having a significant number of both masculine and feminine traits (no obvious gender)
What is the basis of the biological argument and what are it’s strengths and weaknesses?
Genes and hormones, as well as the structure and function of the brain are the causes of observable gender differences (Halgeson, 2012 - pg 135)
Strengths: Makes logical sense, and has some grounding in various conditions i.e. 5ARD, etc.
Weaknesses: Lack of empirical evidence, no definitive part of biology can be attributed to gender, they contradict, some say chromosomes, some say hormones, and brain differences means whole theory cannot entirely explain differences)
What is the natural human form?
Female, as females do not require female hormones to form, only the absence of male ones. Therefore, nature will “produce a female unless androgens (male sex hormones) intervene” (Atkinson and Hilgard, 2009)
How many chromosome pairs are there?
23 pairs (all match in females, and one odd pair - XY in males)
Outline the case of 5 Alpha Reductase (Batista boys)
Imperato and McGinlet et al (1974) claimed that gender roles were flexible until at least puberty, citing the Batista boys, who were born female, but once puberty arrived, their female genitals became male
Does the case of the Batista boys support the nature or nurture argument?
It seems to support the nature argument, as genetics changed the children’s sex during puberty, and despite being raised until puberty as female, their genders also changed to male, suggesting that gender is influenced primarily by biological factors
Outline Klinefelter syndrome
When a boy is born with an extra X chromosome, most don’t realise they have it until they try to have children, and general traits include low testosterone, feminine body features and minor cognitive impairments
Does Klinefelter syndrome support nature, nurture or the interactionist argument?
nature/interactionist argument, as chromosomes and genes play a role, but chromosomes cannot be the only factor, as if that was the case, the gender of the individuals would likely be more ambiguous, as they ought to showcase both masculine and feminine traits as a result of having both types of chromosome
What are sex hormones?
Produced by the endocrine system, two kinds: estrogens and androgens and both men and women have them, just in differing amounts
What was Aleman’s 2004 experiment, and does it support nature or nurture?
Testosterone was administered to healthy women, and it was found that they performed better on mental rotation tasks, seeming to support nature, as it seems that hormones are responsible for gender differences
What is Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) and does it support nature or nurture?
It is a genetic disorder that causes prenatal exposure to high levels of androgens. Females with this condition are more likely to be gay or bisexual and tend to prefer male toys, and have spatial abilities on par with males, seeming to support nature, as hormones seem to be responsible for the exhibition of ‘male’ traits
What are the two ‘best’ ways to showcase cognitive and behavioural differences between the sexes?
Toy preferences and spatial abilities
What did Money and Ehrhardt (1972) believe?
Examined how hormones shape gender, and believed that humans are not born with a gender, so it is possible to reassign gender within the first two years of life.
Support for Money and Ehrhardt’s theory
Their beliefs are evidenced in studies of intersex individuals who were born female, but given hormone treatment, raised as boys, and felt themselves to be boys. Furthermore, female rat fetuses injected with testosterone were more likely to behave like male rats in adulthood
What is the case of David Reimer and does it support the nature or nurture debate and does it prove Money’s ideas?
Bruce and Brian were identical twins, and Bruce’s penis was destroyed during a botched circumcision, and at Money’s recommendation, his genitalia was altered to a girl’s and he had ongoing estrogen injections and was renamed Brenda. However, he never felt like a girl and eventually transitioned back into a man, before committing suicide. This seems to imply that the role of hormones and socialisation cannot sway the influences of chromosomal sex, and seems to support neither the nature nor nurture debate, though Money believed it was clear evidence for the biological argument for gender differences.
What is Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome?
AIS occurs when an individual is born with XY chromosomes and testes instead of a uterus, but they also have a vagina. In people with AIS, the androgens from the testes do not produce the full change into a male, and their testes are generally removed, and they are raised as girls.
Who experimented on individuals with AIS, and do their findings support the nature or nurture debate?
Hires, Ahmed and Huges (2003) compared 22 typical girls to 22 girls with AIS and found no differences in gender related behaviour or personality, suggesting that hormones could override genetics, supporting the thinking of Money and Ehrhardt, in that chromosomal sex can be overridden via hormones
What did Harasty (1999) and Kimura (1987) find in regards to brain differences in males and females?
Harasty found that the Wernicke’s area (the area for comprehending sounds and word meanings) is 30% larger in women and the Broca area (important for the ability to produce fluent speech) is 20% larger in women.
Kimura found differences in the sexes such as spatial ability and verbal ability are likely due to brain organisation
What is the evolutionary/ sociobiological theory of gender differences?
Attempts to explain differences in behaviour by reference to survival advantages over time (first proposed by Darwin, written by Gross, 1996), for example, males are more competitive and aggressive as this helps to attract a mate, and females are nurturing for the same reasons. This should be argued as a nurture theory, because it argues that social pressures are what forced differences in genders
What are the strengths of the evolutionary argument?
This theory has considerable explanatory power, and makes logical sense and explains why women have higher social intelligence.
What are the criticisms of the evolutionary theory?
Not accounting for things such as cross-cultural differences, and for denying individual agency (free will)
What is social learning theory and does it support nature or nurture?
Bandura (1977) argued that gender roles develop as children observe same-sex models and direct tuition. This supports the nurture debate, as it suggested that gendered differences arise because of mimicry of same-sex gender modelling
Strengths of social learning theory
People watch, observe and mimic the behaviours. Evidenced in the Bobo doll experiment Bandura conducted, where children observed an adult abusing an inflatable doll, both physically and emotionally and found that children not only modelled the behaviour shown, but also were more likely to model the behaviour if it was exhibited by a same-sex model
Weakness of social learning theory
It limits the free will of individuals, and suggests learning only occurs through mimicry
What is social role theory and does it support nature or nurture?
Eagly, 1987 argues that gender is a socio-cultural construct. Explanations about males and females are reflected in the way society is organised. The division of labour creates and perpetuates gender differences in behaviour. It supports nurture, as it states that if an occupation demands masculine or feminine traits those traits predict the extent to which the job will be male or female dominated.
What support is there for social role theory?
Cejeka and Eagly (1999) found that an occupation demanding masculine or feminine roles can predict the role being male or female dominated
What was Kohlberg’s 3 stages of gender development?
Gender identity (2yrs): identifies own gender
Gender stability (3 or 4 yrs): understands that their gender remains constant over time
Gender constancy (5-7 yrs): understands gender cannot be altered
What is cognitive development theory and does it support nature or nurture?
Cognitive development theory (Kohlberg, 1966 and 1969) states that once children become aware of aware of their gender, they go looking for role models of the same gender. It supports the nurture debate, as children are not ‘born’ with a gender, but once they become aware of a gender via social conditioning, they seek out gender appropriate role models.
What is Gender Schema Theory and does it support the nature or nurture debate?
Bem (1981) argues that people are either male or female with specific gender attributes. These gender schemas organise our information processing. Bem states that the most important factor in developing gender identity is children’s ability to label themselves as boys or girls. Children are motivated to conform and tend to observe same sex gender models more clearly/carefully. It supports nurture, as, like the Bobo doll experiment, children model the behaviour showcased by same sex models.
Strengths and weaknesses of cognitive development theory
Strengths: Show child development over time
Weaknesses: Overestimates the cognitive ability of a 2 year old child
What experiment did Serbin and colleagues discover in 2002?
Toddlers looked longer at images showing gender inappropriate behaviour (a man putting on lipstick) indicating they were puzzled
Strengths and weaknesses of Gender Schema Theory
Strengths: Does showcase how people categorise masculine and feminine characteristics accurately
Weaknesses: Does not explain the universality of some traits such as aggression in men
What are socio-cultural influences?
Whatever the culture defines as gender appropriate is what is imbibed through social learning
What is the psychoanalytical theory and does it support the nature or nurture debate?
Freud holds that gender results from biological drives hidden in the unconscious and interacting with the developmental process and environmental factors. Freud thought that young children identified with the gender attributes of their same sex parent. Symbolic interactionist, as he states a little of both nature (biological factors) and nurture (observing same sex parents)
