gen bio(t) ka Flashcards
main obj: maging bayot
1
Q
This process involves cutting DNA sequences and pasting them
on a new sequence to create an organism with a specific set of hand-picked
traits.
A
genetic engineering
2
Q
genetic engineering is also known as?
A
DNA technology
3
Q
One remarkable breakthrough of DNA technology
A
genetically engineered bacteria
4
Q
simple organisms that are easy to reproduce and have a simple mechanism of gene transfer.
A
bacteria
5
Q
three modes of gene transfer between bacteria
A
transduction, transformation, conjugation
6
Q
which is transferred via a virus
A
transduction
7
Q
uptake of DNA from the surrounding fluid
A
transformation
8
Q
bacterial version of mating
A
conjugation
9
Q
The ability of bacterial cells to carry out conjugation is usually due to a specific piece of DNA called?
A
plasmid
10
Q
a circular DNA molecule smaller than and separate from the bacterial chromosomes.
- can carry virtually any gene and replicate in bacteria
- main tools for DNA technology.
A
plasmid
11
Q
first step on how to use plasmid to give bacteria its useful potential
A
isolate the plasmid from a bacterium
12
Q
second step on how to use plasmid to give bacteria its useful potential
A
DNA carrying a gene of interest is obtained from another cell.
13
Q
third step on how to use plasmid to give bacteria its useful potential
A
a piece of DNA containing the gene is inserted into a plasmid, producing recombinant DNA
14
Q
fourth step on how to use plasmid to give bacteria its useful potential
A
bacterial cell takes up the plasmid transformation
15
Q
last step on how to use plasmid to give bacteria its useful potential
A
genetically engineered, recombinant bacterium is then cloned to generate to make more copies of the gene.
16
Q
The cutting tools for making recombinant DNA is a bacterial enzyme
A
restriction enzyme
17
Q
a process wherein restriction enzymes work by cutting the foreign DNA to restrict it from surviving in the cell
A
restriction
18
Q
Most restriction enzymes recognize ____________ in DNA molecules and cut at specific areas within the recognition site.
A
short nucleotide sequences
19
Q
Bacterial restriction enzymes cut DNA molecules at specific DNA sequences called?
A
restriction site
20
Q
a result of restriction enzyme making many cuts
A
restriction fragments
21
Q
restriction enzymes cut DNA in a staggered way, producing fragments with _______ that bonds complementary to other fragments
A
sticky ends
22
Q
enzyme that seals the bonds between restriction fragments
A
DNA ligase
23
Q
best candidate for manufacturing a protein product
A
bacteria
24
Q
major advantages of bacteria that are used as gene cloning vectors and the fact that bacteria can be grown rapidly and cheaply in large tanks
A
plasmid and phages
25
most frequently used host for production of enzymes and other proteins by recombinant DNA technology
Escherichia coli (E. coli)
26
simplest and the most recommended among the eukaryotic cells
Saccharomycetes cerevisiae (yeast)
27
these cells normally secrete glycoprotein with chains of sugar attached
mammalian cells
28
recombinant DNA established its influence in different fields of medicine such as?
therapeutic hormones, diagnosis
and treatment of disease, the development of vaccines.
29
the first pharmaceutical products made using recombinant DNA technology.
insulin and growth hormone (GH)
30
main source of insulin before 1982, obtained from the slaughterhouse
pigs and cattles' tissues
31
true or false? Insulin extracted from the animals are chemically
similar but not identical
to human insulin
TRUE
32
DNA test utilizes _______ to identify the presence of HIV hereditary material.
Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR)
33
its main purpose is to optimize the production of yielded crops attained through the practice of synthetic chemicals
conventional agriculture
34
made by humans, resorting to other known methods aside from the natural way
synthetic chemicals
35
if a crop achieved its desired trait, characteristic, and physical appearance and if any synthetic chemicals are evident
conventional type
36
example of synthetic chemicals used in crops
pesticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc.
37
use of plants crossing together, which is mainly compromised with the needed or the wanted characteristics; the selection of the offspring is built up from the combination of certain traits and properties.
conventional breeding
38
also referred to as conventional breeding
hybridization
39
age of earth
4.5 billion years (4.6 BYA sa mod)
40
what is the basis of the evidence for the Earth's age?
radiometric dating of meteorite material together with other
substrate material from Earth
41
earliest direct evidence of the
emergence of life on Earth dates back at?
3.5 BYA
42
what was the earliest direct evidence of the emergence of life on Earth?
prokaryotic cells
43
first appearance of eukaryotic cells dates back at?
1.8 BYA
44
compartment where replication of the primitive genetic material took place and where primitive catalysts gave rise to products that accumulated locally for the benefit of the replicating cellular entity.
protocell
45
they independently hypothesized that Earth’s early atmosphere was a reducing environment, which means an oxygen-poor atmosphere in which molecules tend to donate electrons; their hypothesis states that: life on Earth could have arisen step-by-step from nonliving matter through a process of “gradual chemical evolution.”
Alexander I. Oparin and J.B.S. Haldane
46
Haldane suggested that the oceans are where life arose, he called oceans as?
primordial soup
47
Oparin-Haldane hypothesis was tested in 1953 by?
Stanley Miller and Harold Urey
48
this experiment provided the first evidence that organic molecules needed for life could be formed from inorganic components.
Miller-Urey experiment
49
fluid-filled compartments enclosed by a membrane-like structure
vesicles
50
first genetic material
RNA
51
RNA catalysts
ribozymes
52
major constituent of the fossil record of the first forms of life on earth; layered rocks that were formed from certain activities of certain prokaryotes
stromatolites
53
true or false: fossils of prokaryotic cells were discovered to be as old as stromatolites
true
54
main photosynthetic organism for a billion of years and remain one of the most important organisms today; they alsocontributed in the release of oxygen to Earth’s atmosphere.
cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
55
Earth’s sole inhabitants from approximately 3.5 billion years to about 2.1 BYA
early prokaryotes
56
theorizes that mitochondria and chloroplasts were formerly individual prokaryotes that began living within the larger cells.
endosymbiotic theory
57
refers to cells that lives within another cell, the host cell (heterotroph), sustaining itself through phagocytosis.
endosymbiont
58
In the Miller-Urey experiment, which best describes the result that they have found?
a variety of amino acids were found in the apparatus
59
Which pieces of evidence greatly support the self-replicating RNA hypothesis?
RNA is able to encode genetic information and carry out catalytic activities
60
It is a 4.5 billion years old rock that fell to Australia in 1969.
Murchison meteorite
61
soft mineral clay produced by the weathering of the volcanic ash that might’ve increased self-assembly of the vesicles.
montmorillonite
62
Earth is thought to have had a reducing atmosphere, what does it mean?
an oxygen-poor atmosphere in which molecules tend to donate electrons
63
When did the massive bombardment on earth ended?
4 BYA
64
eons in order
hadean, archean, proterozoic, phanerozoic
65
states that all living organisms have a common ancestor, but because of millions of years of evolution, each of the organisms became what they are today
theory of evolution
66
acts to encourage traits and behaviors that increase the likelihood of an organism’s chance for survival and reproduction, while eradicating those traits and behaviors that are disadvantageous to the organism
natural selection
67
small scale evolution; the over time change in population
microevolution
68
processes that gave rise to new species and higher taxonomic groups with widely divergent characters
macroevolution
69
The branch of biology dealing with the processes that change the genetic composition of populations through time.
population genetics
70
rate at which a specific allele appears within a population.
allele frequency
71
Entire collection of all the alleles in a population; consists of all genes, including all the different alleles, that are present in a population
gene pool
72
Changes in allele frequencies due to chance alone
reduce the amount of genetic diversity in a population
genetic drift
73
term called for the event that initiates a change in allele frequency in a population that is not typical of the original population.
founder effect
74
states that the allele and genotypic frequency of a population will remain constant from generation to generation, unless there’s a presence of disturbing factors.
Hardy-Weinberg principle of equilibrium
75
who theorized the Hardy-Weinberg principle of equilibrium
Godfrey Hardy and physician Wilhelm Weinberg (1908)
76
frequencies of the resulting genotypes are known as
genetic structure
77
A population's individuals often display different phenotypes, or express different alleles of a particular gene, which we refer as
polymorphism
78
a population with two or more variations of a particular characteristic
polymorphic
79
the fraction of phenotype variation that we can attribute to genetic differences, or genetic variance, among individuals in a population, with it being greater in number in a population, there will be more chance for evolution.
heritability
80
diversity of alleles in a population. It is important to maintain this genetic variance in a population.
genetic variance
81
driving selective force, were the only one acting on the population.
selection pressure
82
flow of alleles in and out of a population due to the migration of individuals or gametes
gene flow
83
changes that occur to an organism’s DNA and are very important driver of diversity in populations; enables organisms to change over time
mutation
84
an individual may either prefer to mate with others of the same genotype or of different genotypes
nonrandom mating
85
mechanism due to human intervention
artificial selection
86
________ of the DNA from two different cells (via transformation, transduction, or conjugation).
recombination
87
most famous mechanism of evolution, and the most widely accepted one; reproduction of individuals with favorable genetic
traits that survive environmental change because of those traits, leading to evolutionary change.
- survival of the fittest
natural selection
88
originates from the Latin “kinds” which is a translation of the Greek word eidos (idea).
species
89
played a central role in the establishment of the general concept of species as metapopulation lineages, and he is the author of one of the most popular of the numerous alternative definitions of the species category
Ernst Mayr
90
“Species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups.”
Ernst Mayr
91
“species is a lineage (an ancestral-descendant sequence of populations) evolving separately from others and with its own unitary evolutionary role and tendencies.”
George Gaylord Simpson
92
“a species is a lineage (or a closely related set of lineages) which occupies an adaptive zone minimally different from that of any other lineage in its range and which evolves separately from all lineages outside its range.”
Leigh Van Valen
93
prevent fertilization and zygote formation
pre-zygotic isolation
94
potential mates occupy different areas or habitats thus, they never come in contact.
Geographic or ecological or habitat isolation
95
different groups may not be reproductively mature at the same season, or month or year.
Temporal or seasonal isolation
96
patterns of courtship are different. For example, male fireflies of a variety of species signal to their female counterparts by flashing their lights in specific patterns.
Behavioral isolation
97
differences in reproductive organs prevent successful interbreeding. It is caused bystructures or that keep species isolated from one another.
Mechanical isolation
98
incompatibilities between egg and sperm prevent fertilization. There is a couple of possible reasons why the egg and sperm cannot unite in cases of gametic isolation.
gametic isolation
99
allow fertilization but nonviable or weak or sterile hybrids are formed.
post-zygotic isolation
100
fertilized egg fails to develop past the early embryonicstages. When the zygote does form, but does not do so completely and usually dies early in its life cycle.
Hybrid inviability
101
hybrids are sterile because gonads develop abnormally or there is abnormal segregation of chromosomes during meiosis. When the zygote does grow to become a hybrid or the offspring of two different species of organisms, but the hybrid itself is unable to breed.
Hybrid sterility
102
F1 hybrids are normal, vigorous and viable, but F2; contains many weak or sterile individuals. The hybrid is able to breed, but future generations are not viable, sterile, or both.
hybrid breakdown
103
how a new kind of plant or animal species is created; occurs when a group within a species separates from other members of its species and develops its own unique characteristics.
speciation
104
modes of speciation
allopatric, peripatric, parapatric, sympatric
105
geographic speciation; occurs when some members of a population become geographically separated from the other members thereby preventing gene flow.
"other place"
allopatric speciation
106
one group is much smaller than the other. Unique characteristics of the
smaller groups are passed on to future generations of the group, making those traits more common among that group and distinguishing it from the others.
peripatric speciation
107
occurs when the groups that evolved to be separate species are geographic neighbors.
"beside + place = beside each other"
parapatric speciation
108
occurs when members of a population that initially occupy the same habitat within the same range diverge into two or more different species.
"same place"
sympatric speciation
109
Swedish naturalist that devised two-part naming system known as binomial nomenclature.
carolus linnaeus
110
a group of organisms (taxa).
taxon
111
taxonomy
domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
112
pointed out that human nature being what it is, the passion between the sexes appears to be fairly constant and, if unchecked population will double itself every twenty-five years.
"Population, when unchecked, increases at a geometrical ratio. Subsistence increases only in an arithmetical ratio. A slight acquaintance with numbers will show the immensity of the first power in comparison with the second."
Thomas Robert Malthus
113
possessed one of the finest minds in history. Almost single- handedly, he founded vertebrate paleontology as a scientific discipline and created the comparative method of organismal biology, an incredibly powerful tool; he firmly established the fact of the extinction of past life forms.
Georges Cuvier
114
a Scottish farmer and naturalist known as the founder of modern geology. He developed the theory of gradualism according to which profound changes to the Earth, such as the Grand Canyon, are due to slow continuous process and not part of catastrophes as proposed by the Theory of Catastrophism.
James Hutton
115
was a Scottish lawyer and the foremost geologist of his day. He is best known as the author of Principles of Geology. It has popularized geologist James Hutton’s concept of “uniformitarianism” — the idea that the Earth was shaped by slow-moving forces still in operation today.
Charles Lyell
116
one of the best-known early evolutionists; he believed that living things evolved in a continuously upward direction, from dead matter, through simple to more complex forms, toward human "perfection."
- he stated that species didn't die out in extinctions
Jean Baptiste Lamarck
117
he argued that organisms gradually evolve through a process he called “natural selection,” wherein organisms with genetic variations that suit their environment tend to propagate more descendants than organisms of the same species that lack the variation, thus influencing the overall genetic makeup of the species.
Charles Darwin
118
remains of plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and single-celled living things that have been replaced by rock material or impressions of organisms preserved in rock
fossils
119
Physical features shared due to evolutionary history (a common ancestor); they don't have the same functions.
homologous
120
evolved independently in different organisms because the organisms lived in similar environments or experienced similar selective pressures.
analogous
121
occurs when organisms that aren't closely related evolve similar features or behaviours, often as solutions to the same problems
convergent evolution
122
an anatomical feature or behavior that no longer seems to have a purpose in the current form of an organism of the given species.
vestigial
123
vestigial structure in humans
coccyx or tailbone
124
unborn (or unhatched) animal or human young in its earliest phases
embryo
125
study of embryo
embryology
126
study of geographical distribution of fossils and living organisms.
biogeography
127
organs or skeletal components of animals that indicate their relation to a common ancestor by their resemblance. Most of the time, these systems do not need to look identical, or have the same function
homologous structure
128
share an evolutionary path that led to the development of the observed trait from an organism.
homologous traits
129
similarities in structures as the result of organisms’ gradual adaptation to the environment
analogous structures
130
the general laboratory technique for determining the exact sequence of nucleotides, or bases, in a DNA molecule
DNA sequencing
131
DNA sequences which codify polypeptides (which constitute
proteins).
genes
132
suitable for comparing organisms within a species or those that have diverged within a relatively short period of time (~20 million years) due to these variations.
mitochondrial DNA sequencing
133
defines a species' evolutionary growth
phylogeny
134
a branching diagram portraying the species evolutionary growth
phylogeny tree (cladogram)
135
science of identifying, classifying, and naming living things
taxonomy
136
Which levels of classification determine an organism's scientific name?
Genus and species
137
Largest and most general group into which organisms are classified
kingdom and phylum
138
the study of diversity of organisms and the evolutionary relationships among them
systematics
139
Father of Modern Taxonomy created Binomial System of Nomenclature.
carolus linnaeus
140
other name ni Carolus Linnaeus
Karl von Linne
141
domain: (in human)
eukarya
142
kingdom: (in human)
animalia
143
phylum: (in human)
chordata
144
class: (in human)
mammalia
145
order: (in human)
primates
146
family: (in human)
pongidae
147
genus: (in human)
homo
148
species: (in human)
homo sapiens
149
from the Greek dicho meaning “in two” or “split” and tom, meaning “to cut”
dichotomous
150
key branches split in two at each stage
dichotomous key
151
govern the naming of species: Algae, Fungi, and Plants
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)
152
govern the naming of species: animals
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)
153
govern the naming of species: bacteria
International Code of Nomenclature Bacteria (ICNB)
154
govern the naming of species: viruses
International Committee on Taxonomy Of Viruses (ICTV)
155
the biological variety of living things on Earth.
biodiversity
156
within a population is the most reliable and precise indicator of biodiversity.This diversity measure explores the variations between individuals within a group, or the differences between different populations of the same species.
genetic diversity or genetic variation
157
which best suits the literal translation of biodiversity, is just the wider level: the number of different species in a specific ecosystem or on Earth. This kind of diversity is only looking at an environment and reporting what can be seen there.
Species diversity
158
the broadest, most encompassing level. The "cogs and wheels" involve not only life, but also the ground, sea, and air that sustain life, as Leopold clearly understood. Biologists look at the many forms of functional units created by living communities interacting with their environments in the diversity of ecosystems.
ecosystem diversity
159
a group of one or more populations of an organism seen to form a unit; usually recognized using a particular name and ranking, especially when it is accepted or becomes established.
taxon
160
three facets of taxon
name, rank, content
161
A simple definition during the time of Darwin was created, which simply noted that a species is a term "arbitrarily given for the sake of convenience to a set of individuals closely resembling each other, and that it does not essentially differ from the term variety, which is given to less distinct and more
fluctuating forms".
The Darwinian definition (Darwin, 1859)
162
A more clarifying definition was presented in 1978 wherein a species is the smallest group that are consistently and persistently distinct and distinguishable by ordinary means (Cronquist 1978). So basically, the main criterion of this definition is that for as long as there is a clear morphological distinction from another group, it is a separate species. However, the problem with this definition is that it cannot address cryptomorphic species, which are morphologically similar looking species but are genetically unrelated (Brickford et al., 2007).
Morphological/phenetic species concept
163
This concept has also been recommended for prokaryotes (Staley, 2006) and has recently been referred to in several DNA barcoding and DNA taxonomy studies. However, there are problems with this concept in asexual as well as in sexual reproduction. In asexual reproduction in which there is no or little gene exchange, each clone with a mutation would be classified as separate species (Coyne and Orr, 2004).
Phylogenetic species concept
164
Just as the phylogenetic species concept, this concept in principle is applicable for asexual organisms as well since it defines species as a genotypic cluster that can overlap without fusing with its sibling. However, acceptance of the genotypic cluster definition would result in an undesirable consequence that each genetically different clone would be identified as a separate species (Mallet, 1995).
Genotypic cluster species concept
165
broader than kingdom; can be classified as archaean, bacteria, and eukarya
domain
166
kingdom eukarya includes?
animal, plant, fungus, and protists kingdoms
167
contain single-celled organisms only; both contain cell walls but the material varies depending on the organism's environment; they lack nuclei
archaea and bacteria domains
168
single- celled, but most of its organisms are multicellular; some have cell walls, some do not; the cells of all Eukarya have a nucleus and other organelles within the cell.
eukarya
169
most basic classification of living things; there are currently 5 of this
kingdom
170
next level following the kingdom in the classification of living things. It is an attempt to find some kind of physical similarities among organisms within a kingdom. These physical similarities suggest that there is a common ancestry among those organisms in a particular _______.
phylum
171
way to further divide organisms of a phylum. As you could probably guess, organisms of a _____ have even more in common than those in an entire phylum.
class
172
In this category, a taxonomy key is used to determine to which order an organism belongs. A taxonomy key is a checklist of characteristics that determines how organisms are grouped together.
order
173
Organisms within a this category have more in common than with organisms in any classification level above it. Because they share so many characteristics in common, organisms of this category are
said to be related to each other.
family
174
generic name for an organism
genus
175
most specific name for an organism
species
176
a phylogenetic system that defines groups by distinguishing between ancestral and derived characteristics. Ancestral characters are attributes of species that are old and have been retained from a common ancestor.
cladistics
177
homologies that are common to all members of a group and indicate a shared ancestry.
ancestral traits
178
common characters (Gr. sym together + plesio, near + morphe, form).
symplesio-morphies
179
attributes different from those found in the group's ancestor.
derived character
180
Derived characters shared by members of a group (Gr. syn together + apo, near morphe, form).
synamorphies
181
result of a cladistics analysis; cladogram, a tree-like diagram that depicts a sequence in the origin of derived characters.
cladogram
182
basic unit of the cladogram, a group of organisms consisting of a common ancestor and all of its descendants; group of organisms linked by a single evolutionary pathway
clade
183
the tips of the branches represent?
taxa
184
indicates where two groups arose from a diverge genetically, splitting off to form a new species.
node
185
implies the passage time
branching pattern
186
a "tree" which estimates the "historical" connections between species or genes that they carry, it is the evolutionary history of the relationship between all living things.
phylogeny
187
a branching diagram that discusses the evolutionary history of a group of organisms.
phylogenic tree
188
Taxa may be at any taxonomic level-orders, species, populations, etc. These taxa may be called
Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs)
189
lines within the tree
branches
190
connect branches
internal nodes
191
tips representing taxa
external nodes
192
basal node
"root"
193
A grouping of an ancestor and all its descendants is known as
clade
194
(1)____________ - the branch lengths are proportional to the number of amino acid/nucleotide changes. such tree is called (2)_________.
scaled branches; phylogram
195
the branch length is not proportional to the number of changes occurring. Such trees are called, __________.
unscaled branches; Cladograms
196
trees reflect the most basal ancestor of the tree in question.
rooted trees
197
competing techniques for rooting a tree: one of the most common methods is the use of an
outgroup
pasimony method
198
do not imply a known ancestral root.
unrooted trees
199
recover the genealogy of taxa, individuals of population etc. Internal nodes represent speciation or other taxonomic events; should contain sequences from only orthologous genes.
species trees
200
a gene in different species that evolved from a common ancestor by speciation. Normally, it retains the same function during evolution.
orthologous gene
201
represent the evolutionary history of the genes included in the study; can provide evidence for gene duplication events, as well as speciation events.
gene trees
202
a _______ group is a group of organisms which forms a clade, meaning that it consists of an ancestor and all its descendants. (from the Greek, meaning "single tribe")
monophyletic
203
A clade that excludes species that share a common ancestor with its members. ("beside the tribe") group.
paraphyletic group
204
A _________ is one whose members' most recent common ancestor is not a member of the group. it means ("many tribes") group, which includes taxa with different ancestors.
polyphyletic group
205
a species or group of species from an evolutionary lineage that is known to have diverged before the lineage that includes the species we are studying (the ingroup).
outgroup
206
this inciple states that given certain probability rules about how DNA sequences change over time, a tree can be found that reflects the most likely sequence of evolutionary events.
Maximum likelihood/Maximum parsimony
