Gehart Ch. 2

Question 1

Systems Theory

Answer 1

A set of mid-20th century theories from which family therapy emerged

Question 2

Postmodernism

Answer 2

Became a major influence of family therapy beginning in the late 20th century. Focuses on the construction of meaning at linguistic, individual, relational, and societal levels

Question 3

The Macy Conferences

Answer 3

A series of conferences in the 1940s which gave birth to general systems theory and cybernetic systems theory

Question 4

Gregory Bateson

Answer 4

British anthropologist and key figure (along with his then-wife Margaret Mead) in the Macy Conferences. Helped to develop the double-blind theory of schizophrenia

Question 5

Heinz von Foerster

Answer 5

Austrian-born systems theorist who studied physics before developing before focusing on cybernetics and developing radical constructivism, a postmodern theory that describes how an individual constructs reality

Question 6

Milton Erickson

Answer 6

Psychiatrist, therapist, hypnotist, and a key figure in the development of solution-based therapies

Question 7

Bradford Keeney

Answer 7

Family therapist and student of Gregory Bateson who has studied second-order cybernetics, which acknowledges the impact of the observer (or therapist) on what is observed. In his more recent anthropological work, he has studied shamanism and the cybernetic worldviews of indigenous cultures, notably the Kalahari Bushmen. He also developed improvisational therapy and resource-focused therapy, a strengths-based, systemic approach

Question 8

Von Bertalanffy

Answer 8

Austrian biologist and key figure in the emergence of general systems theory, which was one of the foundational theories discussed at the Macy Conferences

Question 9

3 Major Concepts of General Systems Theory

Answer 9

1) The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
2) Systems can be viewed in terms of hierarchy, executive organization, and subsystems.
3) Systems strive toward self-preservation and therefore its members work in service of the system as well as themselves.

Question 10

Open Systems vs. Closed Systems

Answer 10

Open systems regularly interact with the environment and other systems. Closed systems do not.

Question 11

Entropy vs. Negative Entropy (or Negentropy)

Answer 11

Entropy is the natural process by which systems breakdown and become more chaotic. System therapists strive to foster negative entropy (or negentropy), which involves a healthy balance between being open and closed.

Question 12

Equifinality

Answer 12

A single end state can have many possible causes.

Question 13

Equipotentiality

Answer 13

A single cause can have many potential outcomes.

Question 14

Circular Causality

Answer 14

How each member in a system affects others, mutually influencing the others’ behavior and (often) creating a recursive pattern that repeats over and over.

Question 15

Cybernetic Theory

Answer 15

Describes how systems maintain balance or homeostasis through self-correction. Anthropologist Gregory Bateson pioneered the study of social systems using cybernetic theory, which has had the most influence on the field of family therapy.

Question 16

Homeostasis

Answer 16

A state of dynamic (not static) equilibrium.

Question 17

Morphogenesis

Answer 17

How a system can adapt and change its internal structure

Question 18

Morphostasis

Answer 18

How a system resists changing its internal structure

Question 19

Negative Feedback

Answer 19

Pushes a system back toward its previous homeostasis

Question 20

Positive Feedback

Answer 20

Moves a system further away from its previous homeostasis, potentially resulting in a new homeostasis

Question 21

Second Order Change

Answer 21

When a system restructures its homeostasis in response to positive feedback and the rules that govern the system fundamentally change

Question 22

First Order Change

Answer 22

When a system returns to its previous homeostasis after positive feedback

Question 23

Pragmatics of Human Communication

Answer 23

The early work of the Bateson team resulted in this classic 1967 text by Watzlawick et al. which proposed the following axiom: One cannot not communicate.

Question 24

Report vs. Command Aspects of Communication

Answer 24

The report is the content or the literal meaning of the statement. The command is the metacommunication, or the communication about how to interpret the communication. The command aspect always defines the relationship between two people.

Question 25

The Bateson Group

Answer 25

A research group spearheaded by Gregory Bateson and also including Don Jackson, Jay Haley, William Fry, and John Weakland

Question 26

3 elements of a double-bind communication

Answer 26

1. Two people are in an intense relationship that has high survival value
2. Within this relationship, a message is given that is structured with: (a) a primary injunction (e.g., a request or order) and (b) a simultaneous secondary injunction that contradicts the first, usually at the metacommunication level
3. The receiver of the contradictory injunctions has the sense that they cannot escape or step outside the cognitive frame of the contradictions, either by metacommunicating (e.g., commenting on the contradiction) or by withdrawing, without threatening the relationship. The receiver is made to feel “bad” or “mad” for even suggesting there is a discrepancy.

Question 27

Symmetrical Relationships

Answer 27

Relationships in which the parties have “symmetrical” or evenly distributed abilities and roles in the system: an equal relationship

Question 28

Complementary Relationships

Answer 28

Relationships in which each party has a distinct role that balances or complements the other, often resulting in a form of hierarchy

Question 29

4 basic propositions that arise from viewing the family as a system or “holon”

Answer 29

1. No single person orchestrates the interactional patterns
2. All behavior makes sense in context
3. No single person can be blamed for family/relational distress
4. Personal characteristics are dependent on the system

Question 30

Bateson’s general point about epistemology

Answer 30

Most of the propositions that humans assume to be true are erroneous; they appear true because they capture one dimension of an interactional sequence, but they rarely include the broader awareness of how observer and observed reciprocally reinforce and impact each other

Question 31

Second-Order Cybernetics

Answer 31

Refers to applying systemic principles to the observing system, which in family therapy is the therapeutic system (therapist observing the family system)

Question 32

4 assumptions shared by systemic and social constructionist theories

Answer 32

1. A person’s lived reality is relationally constructed
2. Personal identity and an individual’s symptoms are related to the social systems of which they are a part
3. Changing one’s language and description of a problem alters how it is experienced
4. Truth can be determined only within relational contexts; an objective, outsider perspective is impossible

Question 33

Systems Theory vs. Social Constructionism: Different Metaphors

Answer 33

Systems theory uses a systems metaphor: a family is a system, a group of individuals who coordinate meaning and their understanding of the world.

Social constructionism uses a textual metaphor: people narrate their lives to create meaning using the social discourses available to them.

Question 34

Kenneth Gergen

Answer 34

Social psychologist whose work has laid the foundation for the development of social constructionist therapy approaches, most notably collaborative therapy and to a lesser degree narrative therapy

Question 35

Sheila McNamee

Answer 35

Communications theorist who, working with Ken Gergen, has been a leader in translating social constructionist ideas to therapy, including an in-depth exploration of ethical issues

Question 36

John Shotter

Answer 36

Social constructionist whose work focuses on how people coordinate joint action through shared meanings and understanding. His work emphasizes the ethics of mutual accountability in social relationships.

Question 37

Michel Foucault

Answer 37

Social critic and philosopher who rejected labels (e.g., postmodernist, structuralist, and poststructuralist) and who described how power and knowledge shape individual realities in a given society. He was a significant influence on Michael White’s narrative therapy and his work introduced political and social justice ramifications of language and power in therapy.

Question 38

Ludvig Wittgenstein

Answer 38

Austrian philosopher whose philosophy of language is highly influential in postmodern therapies, notably solution-focused brief therapy and collaborative therapy. He describes language as inextricably woven into the fabric of life and argues that language cannot be meaningfully removed from its everyday use, as it commonly is in philosophical and theoretical discussions.

Question 39

Mikhail Bakhtin

Answer 39

Russian critic and philosopher who worked on dialogue and concepts of identity, emphasizing that the self is unfinalizable (can never be fully known) and that self and other are inextricably intertwined.

Question 40

6 Postmodern Theoretical Concepts

Answer 40

1. Skeptical of objective reality
2. Reality is constructed
3. Language is formative rather than representative
4. Knowledge is a communal achievement, not an individual one
5. Multiple Realities
6. Self is a dynamic, relational social construct

Question 41

Culture

Answer 41

A set of “goods”––in the form of values and meanings––that a community uses to coordinate joint action

Question 42

How culture creates oppression (from a postmodern perspective)

Answer 42

To effectively coordinate human interactions, all cultures are oppressive in some form because they must identify behaviors that are acceptable and unacceptable.

Question 43

Dominant Discourses

Answer 43

The ideals, beliefs, and values that a culture uses to coordinate behavior

Question 44

Local, Nondominant, or Minority Discourses

Answer 44

Alternative cultural values (i.e., alternative to the “mainstream” or dominant discourses)

Question 45

Marginalization

Answer 45

Being treated as “less than.” What happens to people who are not aligned with the dominant discourses within a given society

Question 46

Epistemology

Answer 46

The study of knowledge and the process of knowing