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further chemistry Flashcards

1
Q

what are bulk chemicals?

A

made on large scale eg:

  • ammonia
  • sulphuric acid
  • phosphoric acid
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2
Q

what are fine chemicals?

A

made on small scale eg:

  • drugs
  • fragrances
  • food additives
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3
Q

why does the government issue strict regulations?

A

control:

  • storage of chemicals
  • chemical processes
  • transportation of chemicals
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4
Q

explain the government law?

A

HSE responsible for regulating risks to health and safety eg hazard symbols

law passed to companies to encourage to reduce amount of pollution

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5
Q

what are chemists required to do?

A
  • follow standard precautions
  • carry out titration
  • scale up production
  • interpret results
  • carry out quality assurance
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6
Q

what does the production of useful chemicals have?

A
  • synthesis
  • monitoring purity
  • handling of by products and waste
  • preparation of feedstocks (starting materials)
  • separation of products
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7
Q

what is green chemistry?

A

based on # of principles that lead to more sustainable process

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8
Q

what does the sustainability of a chemical process depend on?

A
  • atom economy
  • use of renewable feedstock
  • energy inputs and outputs
  • health and safety risks
  • waste prevention
  • environmental impact
  • social and economic benefits
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9
Q

what is the atom economy?

A

measure of amount of reactants that end up as useful products

mass/total mass x 100

final product should:

  • contain all atoms used
  • reduce waste products + increase yield
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10
Q

how do you calculate percentage yield?

A

actual yield/theoretical yield x 100

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11
Q

explain renewable raw materials?

A

should be used whenever possible

developing new materials from plants but plants take up land, fertilisers used to increase productivity but use a lot of energy

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12
Q

explain the energy needed to carry out a reaction?

A

should be minimised to reduce environment + economic impact, process should be carried out at ambient temp + pressure

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13
Q

what do catalysts do?

A
  • reduce activation energy needed for reaction so process is faster + can take place at lower temp
  • remain unchanged + can be used again so process is sustainable
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14
Q

explain risks in green chemistry?

A

substances should be chosen to minimise risks of chemical accidents

methods developed to detect harmful products before made
environmental impact reduced by using alternatives to harzardous chemicals

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15
Q

what can methanol be used as?

A
  • chemical feedstock

- manufacture of cosmetics

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16
Q

what can ethanol be used as?

A
  • solvent

- fuel

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17
Q

what can ethanol be produced by?

A
  • fermentation
  • biotechnology
  • synthesis
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18
Q

what are the physical properties of alcohols?

A
  • short alcohols have low boiling point bc intermolecular forces weak + don’t need energy to over come
  • long hydrocarbons less soluble in water bc behave more like an alkane o tend to float on top of water due to low density
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19
Q

how do alcohols, alkanes and water react with sodium?

A

alcohol - sodium sinks in it, doesn’t melt, steadily gives off hydrogen

alkane - no reaction

water - sodium floats on it, melts, rushes around on surface + rapidly gives off hydrogen

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20
Q

how do alcohols react with sodium?

A

to produce salt + hydrogen gas

eg:
ethanol + sodium —> sodium ethoxide + hydrogen

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21
Q

why do alcohols burn in the air?

A

because of the presence of a hydrocarbon chain

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22
Q

what is equation that shows what happens when ethanol burns in the air?

A

C2H5OH + 3O2 —> 3H2O + 2CO2

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23
Q

what are the steps to the production of ethene which can be used to produce ethanol?

A

1) crude oil undergoes fd
2) long chain hydrocarbons are vaporised + cracked using catalyst + heat
3) molecules purified using fd
4) ethene produced used for feedstock + remaining water removed

ethane then reacted with steam at high temp in presence of catalyst to produce ethanol:
- ethene + steam —> ethanol

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24
Q

how is ethanol for used in alcoholic drinks produced?

A

1) water + yeast mixed with natural sugars at room temp
2) enzymes found in yeast catalyse formation of ethanol and carbon dioxide
3) carbon dioxide allowed to escape from reaction vessel but air is prevented from entering

glucose —> ethanol + carbon dioxide

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25
Q

what are social benefits of green chemistry?

A
  • cleaner air quality
  • cleaner buildings
  • improve water quality in rivers + lakes
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26
Q

what are economic benefits of green chemistry?

A
  • reduced energy costs
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27
Q

efficient chemical products could be designed to do what?

A
  • minimal harm to people or environment

- able to be broken down into non toxic substances that don’t stay in the environment

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28
Q

what are alkanes?

A

group of hydrocarbons

carbon atoms join together by single carbon - carbon bonds

contain only single bonds so they are saturated hydrocarbons

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29
Q

why don’t alkanes react with aqueous reagents?

A

because C-C and C-H bonds are strong + unreactive but they burn in air to produce:

  • carbon dioxide
  • water
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30
Q

what are alkenes?

A

group of hydrocarbons

have reactive C=C double bonds, described as unsaturated

formula - CnH2n

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31
Q

what is the equation for the combustion of alkanes?

A

CH4 + 2O2 —> CO2 + 2H2O

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32
Q

what are alcohols?

A

characters due to presence of functional group -OH

formula - CnH2n+1OH

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33
Q

what are the 2 simplest alcohols?

A
  • alcohol

- methanol

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34
Q

when ethanol solution is manufactured by fermentation, what is the concentration limited by?

A
  • amount of sugar in mixture
  • fact that above a certain conc, ethanol kills the yeast

when fermentation reaction over, conc of ethanol increased by distilling mixture

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35
Q

what are 2 examples when the distillation process is used to produce spirits?

A
  • whisky

- brandy

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36
Q

how are optimum conditions needed for the fermentation process?

A
  • if temp too high, enzyme denatured + reactant no longer fits
  • if pH changes, enzyme denatured
  • if oxygen present, ethanol oxidised to from ethanoic acid
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37
Q

what does the biotechnology method use to produce ethanol?

A
  • waste biomass

- genetically modified E. coli bacteria

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38
Q

explain E.coli + biomass?

A

E.coli bacteria have had new genes introduced which allow bacteria to digest sugars in biomass + convert to ethanol

meaning wider range of biomass eg wood waste, can be converted to ethanol rather than remaining as waste

39
Q

what are the optimum conditions for the process of biotechnology?

A
  • temp should be 25-37

- optimum pH level needs to remain constant otherwise enzyme denatured

40
Q

what are carboxylic acids?

A

characteristic properties are due to presence of functional group - -COOH

41
Q

what are the 2 simplest carboxylic acids?

A
  • methanoic acid

- ethanoic acid

42
Q

what are examples of the unpleasant smells of carboxylic acids?

A
  • taste of vinegar
  • smell of sweaty socks
  • taste of rancid butter
43
Q

what are the chemical reactions of carboxylic acids?

A

weak acids meaning less reactive and their pH values aren’t as low as than strong acids like nitric + sulphuric

react with metals, carbonates + alkalis to produce salts

44
Q

what do carboxylic acids react with?

A
  • metals to form salt + hydrogen

- carbonates to form salt, water and carbon dioxide

45
Q

w

A

w

46
Q

what do carboxylic acids react with alcohols to form?

A

esters

this reaction carried out in presence of a strong acid catalyst

carboxylic acid + alcohol —> ester + water

47
Q

what are esters?

A
  • have distinctive smells responsible for smells and flavour of fruits
  • used in manufacture of perfumes + food products
  • found in solvents + plasticizers
48
Q

what are fats?

A

naturally occurring esters, living organisms make them to use as an energy store

esters of:

  • fatty acids
  • glycerol
49
Q

what are animal fats?

A

mostly saturated molecules:

  • have single C-C bonds
  • molecules are unreactive
50
Q

what are vegetable oils?

A

mostly unsaturated molecules:

  • have double C=C bonds
  • molecules are more reactive
51
Q

what is the method preparing for esters?

A

1) ethanol heated under reflux in presence of sulfuric acid, reflux is a process of continual evap+cond
2) ester removed by distillation
3) distillate transferred to a separating funnel where purified
4) product transferred to flask + calcium chloride added to remove remaining water molecules, calcium chloride then removed by filtration

52
Q

what are exothermic changes? (combustion)

A
  • release energy as heat, detect bc a temp rise

- release energy bc products have less energy than reactants

53
Q

what are endothermic changes?

A
  • less common

- take in energy so feel cold to the touch, detect energy change bc temp falls

54
Q

ww

A

w

55
Q

w

A

w

56
Q

what is qualitative analysis?

A

method used to identify chemicals in a substance

57
Q

what is quantitative analysis?

A

method used to determine amount of chemical in a substance

58
Q

what should you do when collecting data?

A

important that samples are representative of the bulk of the material under test, achieved by collecting samples at random

59
Q

what should the container be after a sample has been taken?

A

stored in sterile container to prevent contamination

  • sealed
  • labelled
  • stored in safe place

using system of common practices increases reliability as theres less room for human error

60
Q

what is chromatography?

A

used to find out what unknown mixtures are made of

substances separated as they move through stationary phase at diff speeds while dissolve in the mobile phase

61
Q

what is the mobile phase?

A

solvent used to move solution is called mobile phase

solvents can be:

  • aqueous = water based
  • non aqueous = made from organic liquid eg alkanes
62
Q

what is the stationary phase?

A

medium that the solvent moves through eg paper

63
Q

explain the mobile and stationary phase?

A

each component of the sample, dynamic equilibrium is set up between stationary and mobile phase

overall separation depends on distribution of compounds in the sample between mobile and stationary phases

64
Q

what are the 5 stages of paper chromatography?

A

1) if substance analysed is solid, dissolve in a suitable solvent
2) place a spot of resulting solution on a sheet of paper on the pencil line and allow to dry
3) place bottom edge of paper into a suitable solvent
4) as solvent rises up paper, dissolves the ‘spot’ + carries it up the paper
5) diff chemicals in the mixture separate bc molecules have diff sizes + properties

65
Q

what is thin layer chromatography?

A

stationary phase is thin layer of absorbent material supported on a flat unreactive surface

66
Q

what are the advantages of thin layer chromatography?

A
  • faster runs
  • more even movement of mp through sp
  • choice of diff absorbencies for sp

tlc usually produces better separations for wide range of substances

67
Q

what is chromatogram?

A

formed when chemicals come out of solution + bind to sp. the chromatogram can then be compared to standard chromatograms of known substances to identify the diff chemicals

68
Q

what are examples of when chromatograms are developed using locating agents to show the presence of colourless substances?

A
  • colourless spots sometimes be viewed under UV light + marked on the place
  • chromatogram can be viewed by being sprayed with a chemical that reacts with spots to cause coloration
69
Q

what is Rf value?

A

movement of a substance relative to the movement of the solvent front

70
Q

how can you calculate the Rf value?

A

distance travelled by substance/distance travelled by solvent

calculating it can help identify unknown substances + can be compared to known values for diff substances

71
Q

what happens in gas chromatography?

A
  • mp is a carrier gas
  • sp is a microscopic layer of liquid on an unreactive solid support
  • liquid is inside glass or metal tubing called a column
72
Q

what can gas chromatography do?

A

sample of substance to be analysed is injected into 1 end of heated column where it vaporises. carrier gas then carries through column where separation takes place

gc able to separate components in a mixture bc of their different solubilities

73
Q

what are the advantages of gas chromatography?

A
  • greater separating power
  • ability to separate complex mixtures
  • ability to produce quantitative data from small samples of liquids, gases and solids
74
Q

what are the uses of gas chromatography?

A
  • detecting banned substances in blood samples

- analysing oil spills to identify sources of pollution

75
Q

how can you analyse gas chromatography?

A

size of each peak shows relative amount of each chemical in the sample

76
Q

what is the retention time?

A

time taken for each substance to pass through chromatographic system

in gc, retention time is time taken from substance being injected into system to when detected

tables show retention times of diff chemicals relative to the retention time of a specific compound

77
Q

what are the 6 main stages of quantitative analysis?

A

1) choose an analytical method + take sample that represents bulk material
2) measure
3) dissolve, taking care not to lose any sample
4) measure property of solution that’s proportional to amount of chemical in the sample
5) calculate a value

6) estimate uncertainty of results
- work out average value
- state how confident you are
- find range

78
Q

what are reversible reactions?

A

products can react together to produce original reactants - ⇌

eg decomposition of ammonium chloride is reversible:
ammonia chloride ⇌ ammonia + hydrogen chloride

79
Q

what is the haber process?

A

converts atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia by reacting with hydrogen from natural gas
N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH2

as reversible, small amount of gas leaving reactor is ammonia. unreactive nitrogen and hydrogen recycle to improve yield, most cost effective leaving reaction long enough to reach dynamic equilibrium

80
Q

what is ammonia used for?

A
  • fertilisers
  • explosives
  • dyes
  • medicines
81
Q

how do you calculate the concentration of a solution?

A

concentration = mass/volume

82
Q

what are standard concentrations?

A

conc of standard solutions known accurately so can be used to measure conc of other solutions

83
Q

what is the procedure used to make up a standard solution?

A

1) weight 5g of solid in beaker
2) transfer solid into flask. pour washings into flask to make sure all solid is transferred
3) add distilled water to flask until 3 quarters full. place stopper in top. place stopper in top + gently shake until all solid dissolved
4) place flask on level surface + fill water until level of solution reaches 100cm3 mark
5) invert flask to mix content + ensure evel conc

84
Q

what is the method for titration?

A

1) fill burette with alkali + take reading
2) weight 4g + dissolve
3) use pipette to measure 25cm3 of aqueous acid + put in flask. add drops of indicator to flask, place flask on white tile under burette
4) add alkali from burette to acid in flask. swirl. near end, indicator will show alkali colour. when colour changes, acid neutralised.
5) record vol of alkali added by subtracting amount in burette at end of reaction from starting
6) repeat

85
Q

what is titration?

A

acid alkali titration important method of quantitative analysis

86
Q

how can you measure pH?

A

pH probe used to measure change in pH, pH vol graph used to show how much alkali has been added to neutralise acid

87
Q

what can you find from a pH/volume graph?

A
  • volume of alkali added

- end point of reaction where rapid change occurs

88
Q

what are the 2 general sources of measured uncertainty?

A
  • systematic error

- random error

89
Q

what are systematic errors?

A

repeat measurements too high or low, results from incorrectly zeroed balance eg scales showing 0.06 than 0.00

all repeats would be incorrect by same amount

90
Q

what are random errors?

A
  • mean repeat measurements give diff values
  • introduced when meniscus isn’t on calibration line
  • 1 off errors + wouldn’t be same for all repeats
91
Q

what does validity depend on?

A

accuracy of results, inaccurate results can be result of errors of measurement or mistakes

92
Q

what can mistakes include?

A
  • misreading scale
  • forgetting to fill burette to correct level
  • taking thermometer out to read sale
93
Q

what is accuracy, precision and uncertainty?

A

accuracy - how lose result is to actual value

precision - measure of spread of measured values. big spread leads to greater uncertainty

degree of uncertainty assessed by working out average and stating range

94
Q

explain the making and breaking of bonds?

A

in reaction, bonds in reactants must be broken + new bonds made to form the products

activation energy is energy needed to break bonds to start reaction

  • breaking bonds - endo
  • making bonds - exo

chemistry (7 decks)

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