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further biology Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what is an open loop system?

- give some examples

A

once waste leaves the loop it cannot be used again

for example:
-plastics made from oil

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2
Q

what is a closed loop system?

- give some examples

A

waste can be used again to keep loop going round forever

for example:

  • books made from paper
  • paper = wood from trees
  • wood pulped then turned to paper
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3
Q

how do animals produce outputs?

2 answers

A
  • carbon dioxide from respiration

- faeces as waste

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4
Q

what mixture makes up soil?

A
  • minerals
  • organic material
  • air space
  • water
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5
Q

how do humans take advantages of the ecosystems and services they provide?

A
  • using resources for food
  • removing water for our own use
  • using wood for building and fuel
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6
Q

how are stem cells being used to treat leukemia?

A
  • stem cells from bone marrow donor are injected into patients bones
  • can produce new blood levels
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7
Q

why are stem cells controversial?

A

threat of stem cells becoming cancerous and being a greater threat of the disease

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8
Q

what are synovial joints?

A

allow bones to move freely

shoulders, elbows, hips are examples

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9
Q

what is the synovial membrane?

A

lines inside of the joint producing synovial fluid

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10
Q

what is the recovery period?

A

time taken after exercise for heart to return to a normal rate

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11
Q

what are the functions of the skeleton?

A
  • movement
  • support
  • blood production
  • protection
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12
Q

what are bones?

A

rigid tissues

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13
Q

what are muscles?

A

tissue that contracts and relaxes

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14
Q

what are ligaments?

A

tough, elastic connective tissue that connect bones together

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15
Q

what are tendons?

A

tough, connective tissue that connect muscle to bone

don’t stretch

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16
Q

how do muscles move?

A

contracting so work in antagonistic pairs (1 muscle contracts, while other relaxes)

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17
Q

what is the cartilage?

A

joints are covered in this

tough tissue that helps reduce tear in the join by preventing bones rubbing

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18
Q

what is the synovial fluid?

A

enables joint to move freely by reducing friction

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19
Q

what factors should practitioners consider before starting an exercise programme?

A
  • current med - diff med can conflict with each other
  • alcohol consumption - damage liver, weight gain
  • tobacco consumption - lung cancer, heart disease
  • family med history - genetic
  • previous treatments
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20
Q

what must practitioners do?

A

properly assess patient before diagnostic tests to make sure treatment is effective + will not make condition worse

risk carrying out any tests must be assessed + balanced against chances of being able to cure or reduce symptoms

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21
Q

how do practitioners decide which treatment will be used to improve a patients health?

A

depending on diagnosis

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22
Q

what are ways to achieve an agreed target?

A
  • greater level of fitness
  • period of recovery
  • rehabilitation
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23
Q

what are the risks of treatment

A

could cause further harm or have side effects so practitioner must weight risks against benefits

patient must be aware of risks and likelihood of success so they can make an informed decision before consenting

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24
Q

why must a fitness programme need to be modified?

A

to check its effect

  • if patient finding too hard
  • if patient finding too easy
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25
Q

how can you monitor progress?

A

measure pulse rate or aerobic fitness

increasing aerobic fitness lowers heart trate and has faster recovery rate. resting blood pressure should also be reduced by a fitness programme

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26
Q

what are the benefits between regular contact with a patient and practitioner?

A
  • patient more comfortable + reassured

- practitioner becomes more familiar with med history of patient

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27
Q

what is BMI and how can it be calculated?

A

used as fitness indicator

BMI = body mass/(height)2

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28
Q

why may practitioners disagree about treatment and their effects?

A
  • previous exp with patients

- values such as BMI, only being an indicator

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29
Q

why are records taken?

A

assesses progress + determines trends

inaccurate records slow down progress + make conditions worse

progress records need to take into account the accuracy + repeatability of recording techniques

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30
Q

what are the injuries caused by excessive exercise?

A
  • sprains
  • dislocations
  • torn ligaments
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31
Q

what are the symptoms of a sprain?

A
  • swelling
  • pain
  • redness and warmth
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32
Q

what is the treatment for sprains?

rice

A

R - resting
I - ice
C - compression
E - elevation

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33
Q

what does a physiotherapist do?

A

specialises in treatment of skeletal muscular injuries

help retain part of body that isn’t functioning properly achieved by exercise to strengthen muscles

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34
Q

how can you treat an injured leg?

A
  • extend leg while sitting

- raise leg when lying on stomach

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35
Q

what is a fermenter?

A

controlled environment that has ideal conditions for micro to live in, feel and produce the proteins needed

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36
Q

what can fermenters be used for?

A
  • antibiotics
  • single cell proteins
  • enzymes to make biofuels eg ethanol to use in cars or methane gas to produce electricity
  • enzymes used in food production
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37
Q

why is bacteria ideal for using in genetic and industrial processes?

A
  • simple biochem, making easy to work with
  • reproduce rapidly so produce end product quick
  • ability to make complex
  • no ethical opposition
38
Q

why are natural ecosystems important to humans?

A
  • food eg fish
  • clean water
  • clean air + o2 from actions of plants
39
Q

what is the human impact on ecosystems?

A

can upset natural balance by changing inputs + outputs of an ecosystem

40
Q

what are examples of input change?

A

burning fossil fuels
- adds co2 to atmos, increases climate change

industrial waste
- releases chemicals into ecosystem, harmful

using fertilisers
- minerals in fertilisers can be washed into rivers leading water becoming stagnant

41
Q

what are examples of output change?

A

removal of non recycled waste

fishing
- for food

timber harvesting
- removing trees for use in paper

agriculture
- removing natural vegetation for crops eg palm oil or livestock eg cattle

42
Q

what can the removal of vegetation cause?

A

loss of biodiversity
- diff plants in vegetation support many food chains + provide habitats. replacing them with crop reduces diversity of plants

build up of co2
- as less photosynthesis occurs, less co2 is removed from atmos which accumulates in atmos causing climate change

changes in weather

43
Q

what can overfishing cause?

A
  • loss of biodiversity

- accumulation of organisms that would have been eaten by fish may have harmful effects on resources

44
Q

what do the arteries do?

A

carry blood away from heart towards organs

thick, elastic walls to cope with high pressure of blood

45
Q

what do the veins do?

A

carry blood from organs back to heart

thin elastic walls that contain valves to prevent blood flowing back

46
Q

what do the capillaries do?

A

connect arteries to veins

have narrow, thin wall that is 1 cell thick

exchange of substances between cells and blood takes place here

47
Q

explain arterial blood?

A

plasma of arterial blood contains dissolved products from digestion. around body tissues are networks of capillaries called capillary beds. blood flow in capillary beds is slow so plasma leave + becomes tissue fluid

48
Q

what does tissue fluid do?

A
  • collects + carries away cellular waste products

- enables nutrients required by cells to diffuse into tissue cells eg glucose for respiration

49
Q

what does controlling body temperature require?

A
  • temp receptors in skin to detect external temp
  • temp receptors in brain to measure temp of blood
  • brain which acts as processing centre to receive info from temp receptors + respond by triggering effectors
  • effectors to carry out automatic response
50
Q

what happens if your body temperature is too high?

A

heat needs to be transferred to environment by sweating since evaporation from skin requires heat energy from body

51
Q

what happens if your body temperature is too low?

A

body will shiver. shivering is rapid contraction and release of muscles which require energy from increase respiration and heat is released as by product warming surrounding tissue

52
Q

what is hypothalamus?

A

blood temp is monitored by a centre in your brain called this

53
Q

what is vasodilation?

A

in hot conditions, vessels in skin dilate allowing more blood to flow though skin capillaries meaning more heat is lost from surface of skin by radiation

54
Q

what is vasoconstriction?

A

in cold conditions, vessels in skin constrict reducing amount of blood that flows through skin capillaries meaning less heat lost from surface of skin by radiation

55
Q

what are the vaso responses examples of?

A

effectors working antagonistically to restrict or increase blood flow near skin surface allowing a sensitive + controlled response in this case to allow a gradual increase or decrease in blood flow depending on the strength of the stimulus meaning body temp doesn’t get too high or low

56
Q

what is insulin?

A

after a meal, digestion of carbohydrates leads to sugar being found in blood. pancreas deals with rising blood sugar level by releasing insulin which makes cells remove sugar from blood

cells use sugar for functions such as respiration. if the hormone release goes wrong, leads to diabetes

57
Q

what is type 1 diabetes?

A

when pancreas stop producing enough insulin

caused by genetic

controlled by insulin injections and diet

58
Q

what is type 2 diabetes?

A

body stops responding to own insulin or doesn’t produce enough

caused by old age of poor diet

controlled by diet and exercise

59
Q

what are the sugars found in processed foods called?

A

simple carbohydrates:

- release sugar quick into bloodstream causing a rapid rise in blood sugar level

60
Q

what are the sugars found in fruit?

A

complex carbohydrates:

- release sugar slowly into bloodstream so more likely to help maintain a constant sugar level

61
Q

what is soluble fibre?

A

found in fruit, oats, beans

can release sugar slowly from digestion in the intestine and this can help prevent blood sugar levels becoming too high

62
Q

what does an unhealthy diet cause?

A
  • obesity
  • heart disease
  • cancers

regular exercise can help maintain a healthy body mass + fitness bc it helps to use up sugar rather than storing it

63
Q

in a natural ecosystem, what are the waste products?

A

oxygen from photosynthesis
- used in respiration

carbon dioxide from respiration
- used in photosynthesis

dead matter of living things
- used either directly as food or decomposed by micro

64
Q

how do organisms survive?

A

produce large quantities of reproductive structures eg eggs, pollen, fruit, to ensure successful reproduction

however this excess isn’t wasted as it acts as input to other processes eg food chain

65
Q

why is the carbon and nitrogen cycle important in the recycling of waste?

A
  • digest + break down many diff materials
  • have many digestive enzymes that other organisms lack eg for breaking down cellulose + wood which couldn’t be reused in the system otherwise
66
Q

what is the cardiac cycle?

A
  • heart muscles relax + blood flows into atria through veins from lungs
  • atria contract, squeezing blood into ventricles
  • ventricles contract + blood forced out of lower chambers which carry blood to body + lungs
  • heart muscles relax and process starts again
67
Q

what do valves do?

A

in heart + veins ensure that blood flows in right direction

68
Q

what is the double circulation system?

A
  • deoxygenated blood that’s travelled around the body enters heart via right atrium
  • its pumped from the heart into lungs where haemoglobin binds to the oxygen, becoming oxyhaemoglobin
  • oxygenated blood returns to heart via left atrium + pumped to rest of body
69
Q

what are the functions of the 4 components of blood?

A

red blood cells:
- carry oxygen. packed with haemoglobin which binds with oxygen. to make more room for haemoglobin, they have no nucleus

white blood cells:
- fight infection + defend body against micro

platelets:
- clot together at injury sites to prevent blood loss

plasma:
- liquid that transports nutrients, hormones, antibodies, and waste around the body

70
Q

what is the heart made up of?

A

mostly muscle

left side is more muscular because it pumps blood around the whole body

71
Q

what 4 chambers does the heart have?

A

2 atria
- smaller, less muscular upper chambers that receive blood coming back to the heart from veins

2 ventricles
- larger, more muscular lower chambers that pump blood out of the heart

72
Q

what does the coronary artery do?

A

heart muscle needs oxygen + glucose for respiration which is supplied by coronary artery which is a branch from the aorta to the heart muscle

73
Q

explain the process of eutrophication?

A

minerals get leached from fields into rivers. in slow or non flowing water, build up of minerals allows algae to group at a faster rate:

1) fast growth of algae promotes life as more food is available
2) as algae die, micro of decay use up o2 in water in respiration
3) reduction in o2 levels causes larger organisms to die
4) process leads to o2 levels so low that life can’t exist

74
Q

how does bioaccumulation occur?

A

1) small amounts of toxic waste may be taken up by plants + stored in their leaves, fruits or seeds
2) animals eat these plants and amount of chemical stored in their bodies is higher than in a single plant
3) animals are eaten by others so their bodies accumulate higher levels of chemical
4) animals at top of food chain can become badly affected as chemical reaches a harmful level in their bodies

75
Q

what are examples of bioaccumulation at the top of food chains?

A
  • high mercury levels in some humans, linked to psychological problems + death
  • sparrowhawk egg shells becoming brittle when female sits on them causing # of sparrowhawks to reduce
76
Q

e

A

e

77
Q

why cant using oil be sustainable?

A
  • crude oil takes millions of years to form from decay of dead organisms
  • energy released from burning oil was fossil sunlight energy as it originated from the sun when organisms were alive
78
Q

d

A

hh

79
Q

s

A

h

80
Q

s

A

hj

81
Q

s

A

h

82
Q

how is genetic modification carried out?

A

1) desired gene is selected + isolated
2) desired gene inserted into suitable vector
3) vector allowed to reproduce
4) vectors carrying desired gene inserted into new cells
5) from all resulting individuals, those showing modified characteristics are selected

83
Q

what can genetic modification be used to…?

A
  • produce healthier crops with greater yields
  • enable crops eg bananas, to naturally carry vaccines so don’t need to be kept refrigerated
  • enable some drugs eg insulin to be made from humans DNA
84
Q

what is the method to test a gene?

A

1) DNA isolated from nucleus of a white blood cell. DNA is often amplified so enough material to experiment with, its then broken up into diff sized pieces
2) gene probe is created. this is a single stranded DNA sequence that has bases that pair up with complementary bases on target gene. the probe will only attach if desired gene is present in a sample and so acts as a marker
3) UV light used to locate the marker if probe has a marker that causes it to fluoresce when UV light is shone onto it

85
Q

what is nanotechnology?

A
  • science of working with small structures

- can be used in diff ways inc medicine + food industry

86
Q

what are examples of application of nanotechnology in the food industry?

A
  • nanoparticles in packaging eg adding silver to act as an antimicrobial coating to stop decay organisms attacking food and increasing shell life
87
Q

what are stem cells?

A
  • unspecialised cells
  • can develop into any specialised cell
  • can be found in developing embryos, umbilical cord + adult tissues eg bone marrow
88
Q

what potential applications do stem cells have?

A

bone marrow transplants
- stimulate regeneration of wbc in treatment of leukaemia

treating spinal injuries
- can heal damage by helping to regenerate neurons

using cell culture
- grown into new tissues or organs eg skin + cornea for transplant of burns + blindness

89
Q

explain selective herbicides?

A

kill certain plants + competing weeds so crop yield starts to decrease. pests also eat crops which reduce yield

pesticide kills innocent insects

90
Q

what does biomedical engineering include?

A

pacemakers
- electrical devices to place hearts own pacemaker region to maintain regular heartbeat

replacement heart valves
- devices that keep blood flow within heart efficient if natural valve malfunctions

91
Q

2 things about sun energy to remember?

A
  • radiation from sun is energy source for most biological systems on earth
  • energy can only be transformed or transferred it cant be created or destroyed

biology (4 decks)

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