Fundamentals Of Cognitive Neuroscience Glossary - Set 1 - Sheet2 Flashcards
Acetylcholine (a-SEE-til-kol-en)
A neurotransmitter that functions as a modulator of arousal, memory, and attention during waking states. ACh is generated in the brainstem in the pedunculopontine nucleus and laterodorsal tegmental nucleus and in the frontal lobe in the nucleus basalis. See Chapter 12.
Acoustical analysis (uh-KOO-sti-kul uh-NAL-ih-sus)
(Greek akoustikos of hearing) The process of interpreting physical sound energy, whether linguistic, musical, or sounds in the environment (as in a door slamming or a car starting). See Chapter 5.
Action potential (AK-shun po-TEN-shul)
In neurons, an electrochemical signal beginning near the cell body and traveling down the axon to the synaptic terminal. Also called a “spike” or “neuronal firing.” See Chapter 3.
Alpha waves (AL-fa WAY-vz)
(first letter of the Greek alphabet) A regular electromagnetic wave detected in the brain or on the scalp and apparently reflecting the activity of large populations of neurons. Alpha waves have a frequency of 7.5e13 Hz and originate predominantly from the occipital lobe during periods of waking relaxation with the eyes closed. Conversely, alpha waves are decreased when the eyes are open, as well as by drowsiness and sleep. See Chapters 3 and 12.
Amnesia (am-NEE-zhuh)
(from Greek a-mn-siadnot memory) A loss of memory. Two types are anterograde (a loss of memory after the time of the brain injury) and retrograde (a loss of memory before the time of the brain injury). See Chapter 7.
Amygdala (uh-MIG-da-la)
(from amygdala-almond) The amygdalas are two small, almond-shaped masses of neurons located inside the tips of the temporal lobes. They are considered part of the limbic system and play major roles in emotions like fear and trust, as well as in learning. See Chapter 11.
Anterior (ann-TEER-ee-er)
(from ante in front of) Located in front of something. See Chapter 2.
Anterior cingulate cortex (an-TEER-ee-er SIN-gyu-lut COR-teks)
(from Latin ante before, in front of; Latin cingulum girdle; Latin cortex bark) The frontal part of the cingulate cortex. The anterior cingulate cortex is involved in executive functioning. See Chapter 2.
Anterior commissure (an-TEER-ee-er KA-mih-shur)
(from Latin ante before, in front of) A large bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres. See Chapter 2.
Anterograde amnesia (AN-teh-ro-grayd am-NEE-zhuh)
(from New Latin antero-forward; Greek a-mne-sia-not memory) A form of amnesia in which events after the brain injury are not encoded in long-term memory, although events may be recalled from the period before the injury. See Chapter 7. See retrograde amnesia.
Aphasia (AY-PHAY-zha)
(from, a-without; Latin phasia-speech) A loss of language function due to brain injury, such as damage to Broca’s area, for speech production, or Wernicke’s area, for speech understanding. See Chapter 6.
Arcuate fasciculus (AR-cue-ate fa-SIK-u-lus)
(Latin for arched bundle) A bundle of axonal fibers, especially the ones connecting Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas in the left hemisphere. See Chapter 2.
Area MT
A part of the visual cortex that represents visual motion. See Chapter 4.
Artificial neural network (ar-ti-FI-shel NOOR-el NET)
(from Greek neuron nerve) Also known as ANNs or neural models, artificial neural networks are simulated, simplified models of brain functions. Most are relatively small in scale. However, they are important for understanding the principles of neural computation.
Associative process (uh-SO-see-a-tiv PRA-ses)
(from Latin ad- þ sociaredto join) A process in which one or more sensory and/or response events are linked in the brain.
Attention (a-TEN-shun)
(from Latin atten e-re to stretch out) Selection of some sensory, cognitive, or motor events to the exclusion of others. Attention is often taken to involve a focus on certain conscious events. Also see selective attention. See Chapter 8.
Attention network task (ANT; a-TEN-shun NET-werk TASK)
A generalization of the flanker task, a tool for studying visual attention. The ANT allows testing of three separate aspects of attention: alerting before an expected signal, orienting to a specific location in space where the target is expected, and executive attention to act against expectations set up by the task. See Chapters 8 and 9.
Auditory cortex (AW-di-tor-ee kor-teks)
(from Latin auditorius pertaining to one who hears; Latin cortex bark) The parts of the cerebral cortex involved in processing sounds, such as Wernicke’s area and Heschl’s gyrus. See Chapter 5.
Auditory scene analysis (AW-di-tor-ee SEEN uh-NAL-ih-sus)
The process by which the auditory system segments and organizes the listening environment. See Chapter 5.
Automatic process (au-to-MA-tic PRAH-ses)
A highly practiced skill or habit that can be performed with minimal conscious involvement and voluntary effort. See Chapter 7.
Autonomic nervous system (ANS; aw-to-NOM-ic NER-vus SIS-tem)
(from Greek neuron nerve) The division of the peripheral nervous system that acts to maintain homeostasis and to regulate rest and activity. Physiological activities controlled by the ANS, such as blood pressure and sweating, are generally unconscious and nonvoluntary.
Axon (AK-son)
A long, slender branch of a nerve cell (neuron) that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body. See Chapter 2.
Baron-Cohen, Simon (b. 1958)
Autism researcher who proposed that young children develop a theory of mind capacity composed of four skills: detection of intentions of others, detection of eye direction, shared attention with others, and implicit knowledge about others. See Chapter 10.
Basal ganglia (BAY-zel GAN-glee-uh)
(from Greek basis step, base; Greek for ganglion ‘tumor on or near tendons’) A large cluster of subcortical structures just outside of each thalamus, involving motor control, automaticity, cognition, emotions, and learning. See Chapter 2.
Beta waves (BAY-tuh WAYVZ)
(second letter of Greek alphabet) A band of irregular electromagnetic waveforms detected in the brain or on the scalp, and apparently reflecting the activity of large populations of neurons. The beta band has a frequency above 18e25 Hz and is associated with normal waking consciousness. Low-amplitude beta waves with multiple and varying frequencies often are associated with active, busy, or anxious thinking and active concentration. See Chapter 12.
Binocular disparity (bih-NOC-u-ler dis-PAR-eh-tee)
(from Latin bi two; Latin oculus eye; Latin disparar to separate) The difference in perceived location of an object seen by the left and right eyes, resulting from the eyes’ horizontal separation. The brain uses binocular disparity to obtain depth information from the retinal image in both eyes. See Chapter 4.
Binocular rivalry (bih-NOC-u-ler RYE-vel-ree)
(from Latin bi two; Latin oculus eye) The alternating perception that occurs when a different pattern is shown to each eye and the brain cannot fuse them into a single, coherent percept. Instead, awareness of each eye’s input appears and disappears for a few seconds. See Chapters 4 and 8.
Biological motion (BYE-oh-loj-i-kal MO-shun)
Biological motion refers to motions that a body can make as a set of articulated limbs, trunk, and head. Understanding the social implications of body movements is key to detecting any sign of danger or threat as well as helping understand another person’s intentions, emotions, and state of mind. See Chapter 10.
Bistable perception (BYE-STAY-bel per-SEP-shun)
(from Latin b-two) Sensory events that alternate between two perceptual interpretations. See Chapter 4.
Blindsight (BLIND-site)
A type of brain damage in which patients can report some visual events with no subjective sense of seeing them due to impairment of the first cortical area of the visual system, area V1.
Blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) activity (BLUD OKS-eh-gen LEV-el dee-PEN-dent ak-TI-vi-tee)
A magnetically induced physical signal that reflects the flow of oxygen in the bloodstream in specific regions of the brain. The BOLD signal is the physical source for functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). See Chapter 3.
Brainstem (BRAYN-stem)
The lower part of the brain connecting to the spinal cord. All major motor and sensory systems pass through it, including the optic and auditory nerves. The brainstem also regulates cardiac and respiratory functions and maintains conscious waking, slow-wave sleep (SWS), and rapid eye movement (REM) dreams. See Chapter 2.
Broca, Pierre Paul (1824-80)
A French surgeon who studied a brain-damaged patient with expressive aphasia the inability to speak, while being able to understand speech. After the patient’s death he was able to conduct a postmortem identifying the damaged region as the left inferior frontal gyrus, now called Broca’s area. See Chapter 6.
Broca’s area (BRO-kas AIR-ee-a)
The left inferior frontal gyrus, or its posterior segment, reported by Pierre Paul Broca in 1861 is responsible for the deficit of a patient who could not speak but had preserved speech understanding. Other functions have since been attributed to Broca’s area. See Chapter 6.
Brodmann’s areas (BROD-mans AIR-ee-uh)
About 100 cortical regions defined and numbered by German neurologist Korbinian Brodmann, originally based on the microscopic anatomy of neurons in different patches of the cortex. They are still widely used for cortical localization, and Brodmann’s areas generally have distinctive functions. See Chapter 2.
Cell assemblies (SEL uh-SEM-blees)
Also called Hebbian cell assemblies, these are active networks of related neurons representing some sensory input or similar event. According to Donald O. Hebb’s 1949 hypothesis, “neurons that fire together, wire together,” so that simultaneous firing causes the synaptic links in a cell assembly to grow stronger. See Hebbian learning. See Chapter 7.
Central executive (CEN-trel eks-EK-yoo-tiv)
(from Latin centrum center) Brain processes for planning, decision making, abstract thinking, rule acquisition, initiating and inhibiting actions, resolving goal conflicts, and flexible control of attention. These functions relate to working memory and tend to involve the frontal lobes. See Chapter 9.
Central nervous system (CNS; SEN-trel NER-vus SIS-tem)
(from Latin centrum center; Latin nervus sinew, nerve) The brain and spinal cord. All neurons outside of the CNS are considered to be the peripheral nervous system (PNS). See Chapter 2.
Central sulcus (SEN-tral SUL-cus)
(from Latin sulcus groove) Also called the central fissure, this fold in the cerebral cortex is a prominent landmark of the brain that separates the parietal lobe from the frontal lobe and the primary somatosensory cortex from the primary motor cortex. The central sulcus is a clear dividing line between the input- and output-related areas of the cortex. See Chapter 2.
Cerebellum (ser-e-BEL-em)
(from the Latin word cerebrum brain, cerebellum means “little brain”) A major region of the brain located just below and to the rear of the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex. The cerebellum plays an important role in the integration of sensory perception, fine motor control, and sensorimotor coordination. Recent evidence shows cognitive involvement as well. See Chapter 2.
Cerebral cortex (suh-REE-bral KOR-teks)
(from Latin cerebrum brain; Greek cortex bark) The outer surface of the great cerebrum, the largest part of the human brain, divided into two symmetrical cerebral hemispheres. Most of the cortex has six distinctive cellular layers, containing cell bodies with a gray appearance. But its long distance nerve cells send out axons to other parts of the cortex, to the thalamus, and to other brain regions, which become covered with white supportive cells (myelin). As a result, a vertical cut of the cortex appears to the naked eye to have a thin, gray outer layer and a white inner mass, called the “gray matter” and “white matter,” respectively. The cerebral cortex plays a key role in sensory analysis, spatial location, speech perception and production, memory, attention, emotion, motivation, action planning, voluntary control, thought, executive functions, and consciousness. See Chapters 2 and 3.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF; suh-ree-bro-SPEYE-nel floo-id)
(Latin cerebrum brain) The internal circulation of the spine and brain. CSF allows for a protected flow of molecules and cells that is not exposed to the bloodstream. See Chapter 2.
Cerebrum (suh-REE-brum)
(Latin for brain) See cerebral cortex.
Chunking
A way to make efficient use of short-term memory limitations by condensing large amounts of knowledge into small symbolic units, rules, or regularities called “chunks.” In natural language, nouns can be considered to be chunks because they allow us to refer to large bodies of knowledge by single words. See Chapter 7.
Cingulate cortex (SIN-gyu-lut KOR-teks)
(from Latin cingulum belt; Latin cortex bark) A part of the cortex on the medial (inner) surface of each hemisphere. It is involved in executive functions, the resolution of conflicting goals, and emotion. See Chapters 2 and 9.
Circadian rhythms (ser-KA-dee-an)
A daily, 24-h rhythmic cycle that is affected by light and darkness and that guides our daily wakefulness and sleep patterns. See Chapter 12.
Cognitive neuroscience (KOG-ni-tiv NOOR-oeSIeens)
(from Latin cognoscere to know) An emerging integration of two previously separate fields of science, cognitive psychology and neuroscience. Most research in cognitive neuroscience makes use of psychological methods simultaneous with brain activity recording.
Coma (KOh-mah)
A state of deep and prolonged unconsciousness with a lack of response to any stimuli and loss of normal sleep wake patterns. See Chapter 12.
Computed tomography (kom-PYOO-ted tom-OG-reh-fee)
(from Latin computare to consider; Greek tomosd slice; Greek graphein writing) Abbreviated as CT. Physiological recordings in which a three-dimensional image of a body structure (such as the brain) is constructed by computer from a series of slice images. See Chapter 3.
Confabulation (kon-fab-yoo-LAY-shen)
(from Latin fabula-story) A neurological symptom in which false memories or perceptions are reported with no intention to lie. Confusional state A state following traumatic head injury. A posttraumatic confusional state may last days, months, or years … or recovery may follow swiftly following transition from a minimally conscious state, to posttraumatic confusional state, to full consciousness. Posttraumatic confusional states include extended periods of wakefulness; however, the patient is clearly confused and disoriented. See Chapter 13.
Connectionism (keh-NEK-shun-ism)
(from Latin com- nectere -to bind together) The study of artificial or biologically based neural networks.
Connectogram (keh-NEK-oh-gram)
The connectogram was developed as a graphical representation of brain connectivity data studied using connectomics, the discipline for mapping and interpreting fiber connections in the brain. See Chapter 2.
Consciousness (KON-shes-ness)
(from Latin con together; scientia knowledge) Awareness, wakefulness. Consciousness implies being sensitive and responsive to the environment, in contrast to being asleep or in a coma.
Consolidation hypothesis (kon-SOL-ih-DAY-shun high-POTH-uh-sis)
The process by which new memories are transformed into long-term memory traces. Memories may be stored in the same areas of the brain that support active moment-to-moment functions such as perception and speech control. Consolidation may involve synaptic changes in such brain regions, which make active neuronal connections more efficient. See Chapter 12.
Contralateral (KON-tra-LAT-er-el)
(Latin for “against the side”) The opposite side of the body or brain. See Chapters 1, 2, and 4. See ipsilateral.
Coronal (keh-RONE-el)
(from Latin corona crown) A crown-shaped vertical slice of the brain that divides it into anterior and posterior halves. See Chapter 2.
Corpus callosum (KOR-pus kaleOSeum)
(from Latin corpus body; Latin callosum tough) A massive fiber bridge between the right and left hemispheres, consisting of more than 100 neuronal axons. It appears white when cut because the axons are covered by white myelin cells. See Chapter 2.
Cortex (KOR-teks)
See cerebral cortex.
Cortical column (KOR-ti-kel KAW-lum)
(from Greek cort-skin, husk; Latin columna-pillar) A barrel-shaped slice of the six surface layers of the cortex that often contain closely related neurons. Columns are about 0.5 mm in diameter and 2.5 mm in depth. They may be clustered into hypercolumns, which may be part of even larger clusters.
Cortical core (KOR-ti-kel kor)
An expression referring to the cerebral cortex and the thalamus in the left and right hemispheres. Together, these structures form a massive hub that serves as a core for brain function. See Chapter 2.
Cortisol (Kor-ih-sal)
Cortisol is a hormone key to the circadian rhythms, wake and sleep. Secreted by the adrenal glands, cortisol levels begin to increase in the early morning. They increase by about 50% in the first half hour after awakening, triggering signals throughout the brain and body for arousal. This is termed the “cortisol awakening response.” Cortisol levels decrease throughout the day into the evening, reaching their lowest levels between midnight and 4 a.m. during NREM and SWS stages. Cortisol levels increase again in the early morning during REM sleep and as dawn approaches, they ramp up for another day. See Chapter 12.
Creole (KRAY-ole)
A true language that children spontaneously evolve in multilingual communities. Creoles often are encountered in island communities where language communities overlap. “Creoles” are contrasted with “pidgins,” which are dialects typically spoken by adults as a second language consisting of simplified phrases rather than full grammatical languages: for example, “me go now” as opposed to “I am going now.” Creoles are remarkable because they exhibit a full-fledged grammar, unlike pidgins. The spontaneity with which they arise suggests that human infants and children may be equipped with a biological language capacity with universal features. Crowding Crowding is the difficulty in recognizing individual objects in clusters of other objects or natural scenes. Note that we stated “recognizing”despite being in a crowded part of your visual field, individual features of that crowded scene are detected. The breakdown comes when they are to be identified as individual objects. See Chapter 4.
Declarative memory (deh-KLAR-a-tiv MEM-ree)
(from Latin declararedLatin declarare, from de- ‘thoroughly’ þ clarare ‘make clear.’) The capacity to recall facts and beliefs. A kind of explicit memory. See Chapter 7.
Delta waves (DEL-tuh WAYVZ)
(fourth letter of Greek alphabet) A band of slow, high-amplitude electromagnetic waveforms associated with deep sleep and recorded in the brain or on the scalp, apparently reflecting large populations of neurons. Delta generally is considered to be less than 2.5 Hz. It coexists with waking EEG as well but becomes visible in the raw (unprocessed) EEG only when delta predominates in sleep and drowsy states. See Chapter 3.
Dendrite (DEN-drite)
(from Greek dendrites ‘treelike’) One of numerous thin, branched micron-level tubes extending from the cell body of a neuron. Dendrites typically receive synaptic stimulation from other neurons, and therefore serve as the input branches of the neuron. See Chapter 2.
Descartes, René (1596-1650)
A French philosopher, mathematician, scientist, and writer who spent most of his adult life in the Dutch Republic. Descartes has been dubbed the “Father of Modern Philosophy” and was also a careful student of the brain. He often is considered the originator of modern mind/body philosophy.
Developmental cognitive neuroscience (deh-vel-op-MEN-tel COG-ni-tiv NUR-o-si-ens)
The study of the normal growth of the brain and its mental capacities. See Chapter 14.
Diencephalons (die-en-SEF-a-lon)
(from Greek dia-through; en kephalos brain) The part of the brain that contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, and the posterior half of the pituitary gland.
Diffusion tractography (di-FYOO-zhen trak-TOH-greh-fee)
(from Latin diffusus scatter; traheredto pull; Greek graphein writing) A brain imaging technique that tracks the diffusion of water molecules to trace the major neuronal pathways of the brain. See Chapter 3.
Discourse (DIS-kors)
A connected series of utterances, a conversation. Used by linguists to reflect more than a series of sentences, rather a conversation with a theme and with intents. See Chapter 6.
Disorder of consciousness
Disorders of consciousness (DOC) are potentially nonreversible unconscious states due to brain trauma or damage. See Chapter 13.
Domain specificity (do-MANE spes-i-FIS-ih-tee)
Functional specificity of brain regions or mechanisms. The idea that each cognitive function may have its own region or network of brain regions, rather than general-purpose brain mechanisms with multiple cognitive functions.
Dorsal (DOR-sel; from dorsum back)
The upper part of a brain structure, also called superior.
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DOR-so-LAT-er-el pree-FRON-tal KOR-teks)
(from Latin dorsum back; latusd side; predin front of; forms the forehead; Greek cortex bark) Prefrontal region involved in motor planning, executive control, self-regulation, emotion, and working memory. See Chapters 2 and 9.
Dynamic causal modeling (die-NAM-ic KOS-el MO-del-ing)
(from Greek dynamikos powerful; Latin causad cause; Latin modulus small measure) A method for interpreting brain data, such as fMRI, that helps to interpret causal relationships among brain activities during a specified task.
Edelman, Gerald M. (b. 1929, d. 2014)
American immunologist and neurobiologist who won the Nobel Prize for his work on the structure of antibody molecules. Edelman developed the theoretical framework of Neural Darwinism, which applies Darwinian selectionist principles to the brain, in contrast to the instructionist principles of conventional computers.
Electroencephalography (EEG;eh-LEK-tro-en-sef-eh- LOG-reh-fee)
(from Greek elektron sunlight; en- D kephale in the head; grapheindwriting) Electrical activity that typically is recorded on the scalp and sometimes on the surface of the cortex, reflecting the electromagnetic field of large numbers of active neurons. See Chapter 3.
Empathy (EM-path-ee)
(from Greek empatheias passion) The capability to share one’s feelings and understand another person’s. See Chapter 11.
Epigenesis (ep-ih-GEN-eh-sis)
(from Greek epidafter; Greek genesis birth, origin) Non-DNA factors that shape cells during gestation (pregnancy) and after birth. Contrasted with the classical central dogma of molecular biology in which DNA is recoded into transfer RNA, which ends in the production of proteins for the structure and functions of all cells. Epigenesis implies a flow of causality in the opposite direction. For example, numerous physiological and environmental factors can influence whether specific genes (DNA) are expressed or not. DNA is the primary molecule that encodes phenotypes, passing the plan for a species from one generation to the next. But non-DNA factors can influence the activation and silencing of DNA, the on/off switches. See Chapter 14.
Episodic memory (ep-i-SOD-ic MEM-ree)
(from Greek episei-os coming in besides) Memory for conscious experiences, especially those that can be explicitly recalled, such as times, places, events, associated emotions, and other contextual knowledge. The formation of new episodic memories requires the medial temporal lobe, especially the hippocampal region in combination with the cerebral cortex. See Chapter 7.
