Functionalist, strain & subcultural theories

Question 1

Why do functionalist see crime as inevitable and universal?

Answer 1

• socialisation: not everyone is equally socialised into the shared norms & values so some individuals would be prone to deviate
• there is diversity in lifestyles & values: individuals develop their own subcultures with distinctive norms and values which is seen as deviant
• anomie: in modern societies, rules governing behaviour are weaker leading to anomie > & more deviance

Question 2

What is the first positive function of crime?

Answer 2

• boundary maintenance > operates to convey a message to society
• according to Durkheim punishments such as fines & imprisonment reaffirm society’s shared rules & reinforces social solidarity
• this is because it expresses societies emotions of moral outrage at the offence
• this is furthered expressed through rituals of the courtroom which dramatise wrongdoing & publicly shame & stigmatise the offender
• this reinforces the laws of the law abiding majority & discourages rule breaking
• Cohen also looks at the importance of the media in dramatising wrongdoing in the from a folk devil > reinforces the collective conscious and reasserts social control when central values are threatened

Question 3

Evaluation of the first positive function of deviance

Answer 3

• Becker’s labelling theory argue that deviance is not an objective reality that reinforces boundaries but rather socially constructed by powerful groups who label offenders > leads to marginalisation, ultimately leading to a self fulfilling prophecy & a deviance amplification spiral

Question 4

What is the second positive function of crime?

Answer 4

• creating adaption & change > which allows society to challenge norms & values through new ideas
• according to Durkheim when individuals break laws or deviate from societal expectations this may spark important discussions leading to legal & moral reforms
• e.g. the CRM saw activists such as Rosa Parks commit acts of deviance > considered deviant at the time > yet this ultimately led to the dismantling of segregation laws
• similarly, the suffragettes conducted illegal protests for voting rights for women which led to significant legal reform
• if these acts of deviance did not occur & those with new ideas were suppressed society would remain stagnant and struggle to adapt to the new & necessary changes
• crime= catalyst for social change

Question 5

Evaluation of the second function of deviance

Answer 5

• not all deviant crimes are positive
• e.g. terrorism or violent crimes lead to fear and instability rather than progress in society

Question 6

What other functions of deviance are there?

Answer 6

• safety valve > prostitution allows men to release their sexual frustrations without threatening the monogamous nuclear family
• warns that an institution is not functioning properly > e.g. high rates of truancy may tell us that there are problems with the education system & that policy makers need to make appropriate changes to it

Question 7

What do strain theories argue?

Answer 7

that people engage in deviant behaviour when they are unable to achieve socially approved goals by legitimate means

Question 8

Who developed the first strain theory and what does he argue?

Answer 8

• Merton
• explain how societal structure may cause individuals to commit crime
• uses the example of the American dream which culture promotes money success through hard work, education etc.
• however, in reality not everyone has equal access to legitimate means such as good jobs & quality education > for example there are blocked opportunities for those who are minorities or working class

Question 9

What happens as a result of limited opportunities according to Merton?

Answer 9

• this creates a strain between the cultural goals of money success & the limited legitimate opportunities to achieve
• as a result some experience frustration & creates a pressure to resort to illegitimate means (pressure= strain to anomie)
• some individuals may choose to adapt through deviant means such as innovation (turning to theft or fraud to achieve material success (accept goals)
• retreatism >rejecting both goals & legitimate means (dropouts)
• rebellion individuals reject existing society’s goals & means & replace them with new ones in a desire to bring about revolutionary change

Question 10

What are the evaluations of Merton’s strain theory?

Answer 10

• it fails to explain non- utilitarian crimes like vandalism or violence which do not provide financial gain
• assumes everyone shares the same cultural goals, ignoring the diversity of values in society
• deterministic
• Marxists > ignores power of the ruling class to make & enforce laws in ways that criminalise the poor & not the rich

Question 11

What do subcultural theories see deviance as a product of and what is this a solution to?

Answer 11

• a delinquent subculture with different values from those of mainstream society
• subcultures are a solution to being denied legitimate means to achieve

Question 12

What did Cohen argue in his subcultural strain theory?

Answer 12

• applied strain theory to youth crime, particularly w/c delinquent subcultures
• argued that w/c boys face status frustration due to feelings of anomie in a m/c dominated education system & the low status they are given by mainstream society
• as a result they form delinquent subcultures where they invert mainstream values, committing crimes like vandalism for respect & status rather than material gain > subculture offers them an alternative status hierarchy > allowing them to create their own illegitimate opportunity structure
• explains why crime is committed in groups & how crime can be expressive rather than instrumental

Question 13

What are the evaluations of Cohens subcultural strain theory?

Answer 13

• a strength is that it explains non utilitarian crime like vandalism unlike Merton who only accounts for crime with a profit motive
• assumes that all w/c boys start by aspiring to m/c success which ignores the possibility that some may reject these goals from the outset > deterministic
• does not explain why only some individuals in disadvantaged situations turn to crime

Question 14

How did Cloward and Ohlin extend subcultural strain theory?

Answer 14

• argue that different subcultures emerge as a result of unequal access to illegitimate opportunity structures as well as legitimate ones
• explains why crime takes different forms in different locations

Question 15

What are the three subcultures identified by Cloward & Ohlin that emerge?

Answer 15

• criminal SC > develop in stable w/c areas where there is an established hierarchy of adult criminals who pass on their knowledge to younger offenders (explain why some areas have organised crime e.g. drug trafficking)
• Conflict SC > emerge in areas with high social disintegration & a lack of stable criminal networks
• here young people turn to gang violence to gain status as seen in inner cities with high gang activity
• Retreatist SC > form when individuals fail in both legitimate & illegitimate structures leading to substance abuse & petty crime
• explains why some crime takes place in different forms in different locations

Question 16

What is the evaluation of Cloward & Ohlin?

Answer 16

• their typology is too rigid> many criminals engage in a mix of different forms of deviance rather than fitting neatly in one category
• also focuses too much on w/c crimes, ignoring m/c crimes such as white collar or corporate crime
• deterministic

Question 17

What does Messner & Rosenfeld’s institutional anomie theory argue?

Answer 17

• expands on Merton’s theory by arguing that crime results from an overemphasis on economic success at the expense of other social institutions
• suggest that in capitalist societies, the pursuit of material wealth dominates cultural values weakening institutions like family, education etc which otherwise **regulate behaviour

Question 18

What is a consequence of this economic dominance Messner & Rosenfeld identify?

Answer 18

• economic dominance leads to an anything goes mentality where achieving financial success is prioritized over legitimate means increasing deviant behaviour
• e.g. in the US where the American dream promotes wealth as the ultimate goal individuals turn to crime if the legitimate means are blocked
  > useful as it highlights the structural causes of deviance

Question 19

Evaluating the institutional anomie theory

Answer 19

• Critics argue that IAT is too focused on macro level economic structures & fails to account for individual and cultural differences in crime rates