Functionalist Strain and Subcultural Theories

Question 1

Durkheim argues that crime is inevitable because of two reasons:

Answer 1

Not everyone is effectively socialized into society’s norms and values. Individuals are exposed to different influences and circumstances, so it can not be expected that everyone accepts society’s norms, values and expectations.
It is also inevitable because within society there is a diversity of lifestyles and values. Different subcultures in society have their own norms and values, and what is considered as ‘deviant’ differs between these subcultures.

Question 2

ANOMIE – ‘NORMLESSNESS’

Answer 2

According to Durkheim, society is moving towards ‘anomie’ – normlessness.
The rules governing behaviour are becoming weaker and less clear cut.
Individuals are becoming increasingly diverse and different from one another
This weakened shared culture is leading to higher levels of deviance.

Question 3

changes in Durkheims time

Answer 3

Durkheim was writing at a time of considerable change when Western societies were moving from a pre-industrial state of existence towards industrial expansion (industrial revolution).
The rapid rise of industrialisation and the demand for a complex, specialised division of labour means that individuals are increasingly different from one another.
This led to the rise of an individualistic lifestyle and society becoming fragmented. The weakened collective conscience and social cohesion results in anomie (normlessness, i.e. ‘lawlessness’), making it harder for its members to comply with the same rules as in pre-industrial societies
This has led to higher levels of crime and deviance.

Question 4

DURKHEIM’S TWO POSITIVE FUNCTIONS
of crime

Answer 4

Boundary Maintenance
Adaptation and Change

Question 5

Boundary Maintenance

Answer 5

People need to be reminded of the boundaries between right and wrong
The media report on stories of crime and deviance, which produces a public reaction or outrage from society, uniting its members in condemnation of the criminal and the acts.
This is known as social cohesion – which occurs in time of crisis (e.g 9/11).
Crime reinforces the societies shared norms and values, uniting people in their commitment to them.
Durkheim explains the function of punishment – it is not necessarily for the wrongdoer to suffer, but to reaffirm society’s shared values on what is right and wrong.

Question 6

Adaptation and Change

Answer 6

Durkheim states that all change starts with an act of deviance.
There must be some scope for people to be able to change society’s norms and values.
By people committing these deviant acts, it allows society to change and progress.
For example, same-sex relationships used to be classed as deviant. But now, norms and values have changed, and progress has been made in society e.g allowing of same sex marriage.

Question 7

Davis (1937) – Deviance can act as a ‘safety valve’, releasing stresses in society. Functionalist

Answer 7

For example, he argued prostitution performs a positive function, allowing men to release their sexual frustrations without threatening the monogamous nuclear family, men will not form emotional attachments to sex workers in the way they might if they had an affair.
E.g. mass violent protest demonstrations might be seen as an outlet for expressions of discontent, avoiding wider and more serious challenges to social order

Question 8

Cohen – Crime and Deviance acts as a ‘warning device’ for society that something is not working correctly, and change needs to happen. Functionalist

Answer 8

For example, high levels of truancy indicate problems in the education system, high rates of sucide indicate a mental health crisis etc.

Question 9

Feminist response to davis

Answer 9

Conflict theories such as Feminism would be hugely critical of this notion – as it fails to recognise the high levels of exploitation and patriarchal control that exist in society and particularly within the sex trade.

Question 10

DOES SOCIETY ACTUALLY PROMOTE CRIME?

Answer 10

Erikson (1966)
Since deviance performs positive functions, society purposefully promotes it in order to keep a ‘healthy’ balance of crime.
He suggests agents of social control such as the police actually aim to maintain a certain level of crime rather than to rid it completely.
Society will sometimes try to maintain it through protests, demonstrations, festivals and ‘freshers week’.

Question 11

THE MANCHESTER ATTACK
Functionalist response

Answer 11

The Manchester terror attack was a horrific act of terrorism, however Functionalists would argue that despite it’s consequences, it did bring positive effects too.

After the terror attack, the whole country came together, united in condemning terrorism and that sort of behaviour.
Shared rituals such as vigils, even the ‘one love’ concert by Manchester united society, enforcing a sense of social solidarity – we are all one society, believing in the same thing!
This is an example of ‘boundary maintenance’.

Question 12

9/11
functionalist response

Answer 12

9/11 is another example of a horrific attack that brought the whole world together, not just the US, or even just New York.

To this day, services and vigils are held for the victims of the 9/11 terror attacks. creating social cohesion

Question 13

EVALUATIONS OF DURKHEIM

Answer 13

Functionalism is useful because it allows us to see how crime is essential for society to function and explains why there is crime at all times in every society.
Durkheim states that society requires a certain amount of crime and deviance for society to function, but does not state how much is the right balance.
Functionalists discuss crime in terms of their positive functions e.g strengthening solidarity. But people do not commit crime in order to do this, it is not their motive – so why DO they do it?
Realists (we’ll come back to them) argue Functionalism looks at crime and its functions for society as a whole, but does not look individually at crime and its effects on individuals. It has real consequences for the victims and affects some groups in society far more than others e.g. particular ethnic groups, poorer people - can we really say it’s beneficial to them?
Crime does not always lead to solidarity, and can sometimes have the opposite effect – e.g people staying inside the house because they are too scared to go outside.

Question 14

MERTON’S STRAIN THEORY

Answer 14

Merton’s Strain theory argues that crime and deviance is caused by structural inequality (unequal opportunity, mainly due to social class), which leads to some deviating from society’s rules

Question 15

THE AMERICAN DREAM
mertons strain theory

Answer 15

The ‘American Dream’ is a cultural goal of money, success and happiness.
Americans are expected to pursue this goal by legitimate means: self discipline, study, educational qualifications, and hard work in a career.
The ideology of the ‘American Dream’ tells Americans that their society is a meritocratic* one where anyone who makes the effort can get ahead – there are opportunities for all

Question 16

There are two factors that lead to crime and deviance: (strain theory)

Answer 16

Structural factors
(unequal opportunities)

Society’s unequal opportunity structure, particularly for working class people

Cultural factors

Too much emphasis on goal of success (material wealth and lifestyle) and too little emphasis on using legitimate means to achieve them in society

Question 17

mertons strain theory explained

Answer 17

When there is structural inequality in society, the lack of opportunity to achieve cultural goals places greater strain (pressure and tension) on working class individuals to achieve them.
This leads to the breakdown of accepted norms and values (anomie), which leads to crime and deviance, as people resort to illegitimate, deviant ways to achieve these shared societal goals.
Society also places less emphasis on sticking to norms than it does on the value of success. Winning the game becomes more important than playing by the rules

Question 18

CASE STUDY: LANCE ARMSTRONG
mertons strain theory

Answer 18

Lance Armstrong won the Tour de France a record seven times, but admitted to taking performance enhancing drugs in 2013

People turn to crime and deviance when they don’t have the opportunities to achieve success in legitimate ways.

Question 19

5 adaptations of strain

Answer 19

conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion.

Question 20

RESEARCH SUPPORT FOR STRAIN THEORY
Downes & Hansen (2006)

Answer 20

did a survey of crime rates and welfare spending in 18 countries. They found that societies who spent more on welfare had lower rates of imprisonment.

This shows that societies who support and protect the poor have less crime.

Question 21

EVALUATIONS OF MERTON’S STRAIN THEORY
STRENGTHS

Answer 21

This theory explains how both ‘normal’ and deviant behaviour can occur from shared mainstream goals.
This theory is supported by crime statistics – the majority of crime is property related crime, and working class commit the most crime.

Question 22

EVALUATIONS OF MERTON’S STRAIN THEORY
WEAKNESSES

Answer 22

It takes crime statistics at face value (as true). We know they may not be valid
Marxists argue that it ignores the power of the ruling class in ‘deciding’ the laws which incriminate the poor. Richer people may gain success through immoral acts but these may not have been defined as crimes e.g. business owners paying low wages in poor countries
It assumes there is a value consensus – that everyone strives for ‘money success’.
It only accounts for crime for utilitarian (monetary) gain, and not for non-utilitarian crimes such as violence.
It only explains crime and deviance at an individual level, and not group crime.

Question 23

SUBCULTURAL STRAIN THEORY

Answer 23

Cohen studied working class boys and subcultural crime.
He argues in a middle class dominated world, working class boys experience status frustration.
A sense of frustration arising in individuals or groups who feel they are denied status in society.
For working class boys, they experience anomie in the middle-class dominated school system. They are told they should strive for success, but are unable to succeed in education and so they experience strain.
This leaves them at the bottom of the ‘status hierarchy’.
This status frustration leads them to reject society’s norms and values and turn to other similar young boys, creating a delinquent sub-culture.

Question 24

However, Cohen criticises Merton for two reasons:

Answer 24

Merton only focuses on individual crime – what about group crimes?
Merton only focuses on utilitarian (money) crime, and does not explain non-utilitarian (non-money) crimes.

Question 25

what happens to the delinquent subculture (merton starin theory)

Answer 25

They invert the values of mainstream society - turn them upside down.

They include:
Spite, malice, hostility and contempt for outsiders
What society condemns, the subculture praises
E.g. they got status from truanting and vandalising

Joining a criminal subculture offered them an alternative status hierarchy (or ‘illegitimate opportunity structure’ in which they can achieve success)
Committing criminal acts e.g. car theft allows them to gain status among their peers; status that they are not gaining in wider society.

Question 26

CLOWARD & OHLIN (1960): 3 TYPES OF SUBCULTURE

Answer 26

They agree with Merton that working class youths are denied legitimate opportunities for ‘money success’ and their deviance stems from their reaction to this
Cloward and Ohlin try to explain why different types of subculture form in response to this (not just one type as Cohen studied)

The reason for the difference is:

They have unequal access to the legitimate opportunity structure (as Merton and Cohen said)
They also have unequal access to the illegitimate opportunity structure

E.g. not everyone who fails in their schooling has an equal
chance of becoming a carjacker - you need the opportunity
to learn this trade and practise it, just like any other job!

Question 27

CLOWARD & OHLIN (1960): 3 TYPES OF SUBCULTURES

Answer 27

Criminal Subcultures:
Access to Illegitimate opportunity structure (money)

Conflict Subcultures:
Access to Illegitimate opportunity structure (violence)

Retreatist Subcultures
No access to Illegitimate opportunity structure

Question 28

Criminal Subcultures:

Answer 28

Access to Illegitimate opportunity structure (money)
Mainly utilitarian crimes. Arise in neighbourhoods with longstanding and stable criminal cultures, with an established hierarchy of ‘career’ criminals. These act as teachers to career apprentices. This acts as a legitimate alternative to the job market as a means of achieving financial rewards by climbing up the criminal career ladder.

Question 29

Conflict Subcultures:

Answer 29

Access to Illegitimate opportunity structure (violence)
Arise in areas with a high turnover of residents. Result in high levels of social disorganisation without an established criminal network. This means subcultures are loosely organised gangs, in which violence provides a release for the young mens frustrations. E.g. ‘winning turf’ from rival gangs

Question 30

Retreatist Subcultures

Answer 30

No access to Illegitimate opportunity structure
Emerge among those lower class youth who are ‘double failures’ – they have failed to succeed in both legitimate opportunity structure (offered by mainstream society) and in the illegitimate opportunity structure (crime and gang subcultures). The response is to retreat into drug addiction and alcoholism, paid for by petty theft, drug dealing, shop lifting and prostitution.
.

Question 31

EVALUATIONS OF SUBCULTURAL STRAIN THEORY
Strengths:

Answer 31

Support for Merton’s concept of ‘strain’ and Durkheim’s concept of ‘anomie’
It explains working class delinquency as a group response, rather than just an individual response.
It also offers explanation for non-utilitarian crime like violence (unlike Merton).
Cloward & Ohlin explain different types of deviance among the working class.

Question 32

EVALUATIONS OF SUBCULTURAL STRAIN THEORY
Weaknesses:

Answer 32

This theory assumes that everyone starts off as accepting of societies mainstream goals, norms, values etc. They are ‘reactive’ (form as a reaction to society) but not all share in the same goal of success
It overly focuses on working class crime, and does not explain those who are ‘well off’ who still commit crime despite not feeling strain? They also ignore the fact that those in power decide the law which leads to working class acts being defined as deviant, rather than them ACTUALLY being worse behaved
It is possible to belong to more than one of Cloward and Ohlin’s three subcultures e.g. drug trade mixes both disorganised crime (conflict) with professional criminal subcultures

Question 33

Miller (1958) Focal Concerns
(Critique to strain theories)

Answer 33

Miller does not see society as based on a mainstream set of values that everyone agrees with (and attempts to obtain via legitimate /illegitimate means) e.g. value of success - not everyone values success in the first place, so not everyone is frustrated by it

Instead, Miller sees society as consisting of different classes, each with a distinct set of values

Question 34

Miller (1958) Focal Concerns
lower class america

Answer 34

For example, the lower-class of America had their own cultural traditions, which differed significantly from those of higher classes
their values/way of life (passed on from generation to generation) arose as a result of low-skilled boring and repetitive jobs and periods of unemployment. Lower-class subculture helps them to deal with their situation and find satisfaction outside of work. This is different to the idea of finding an alternative route to success.

He argued that working class boys had specific norms and values which differ from the mainstream. These values were called ‘focal concerns’

These may lead them to commit criminal acts (but it’s not inevitable).

Question 35

Millers focal concerns 6

Answer 35

excitement, toughness, smartness, trouble, autonomy, fate

Question 36

Critique to strain theory and subcultural theory - Matza: Drift & Techniques of Neutralisation

Answer 36

Matza disagreed with subcultural theories that argued that certain groups commit crime because they have different norms.

Matza argues that if criminals had different norms, they wouldn’t express remorse at their actions.

Rather, Matza argues people drift in and out of criminality at different times depending on whether they are able to apply techniques of neutralisation

In other words, we’re all criminal/deviant at some point but most of
the time most of us keep it suppressed - especially adults as we must
learn to do it).

1. Denial of Responsibility
2. Denial of Injury
3. Denial of Victim
4. The Condemnation of the Condemners
5. Appealing to Higher Loyalties

Question 37

Institutional anomie theory - Messner and Rosenfeld (2001)

Answer 37

Like Merton, they focussed on the American dream

They argue that the obsession with money success and it’s ‘winner takes all’ mentality creates a pressure towards committing crime

This is because there is a mentality of ‘anything goes’ when it comes to pursuing wealth - there is an environment of anomie in the economy as there doesn’t seem to be clear guidelines for achieving this success (anything goes!)

In America (and arguably in the UK), economic goals are valued above everything else and this undermines other institutions e.g. schools are geared towards preparing students for the labour market at the expense of teaching things like respect for others, good mental health etc

Question 38

Hirschi’s Social Bonds Theory (1969)

Answer 38

He argues that, as human beings, we all have weaknesses that would tempt us to commit crime
The reason most don’t is because we have
social bonds - connections with other
people and things in our life that encourage
self-control and conformity and that
restrain us from committing crime

There are four social bonds that pull us away from crime and towards conformity;

Commitment
Attachment
Belief
Involvement

If these bonds with other people are weakened or broken, we will turn to crime

However, there also have to be a opportunities for committing crime present too