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Neurophysiology > Functional Neuroimaging > Flashcards

Functional Neuroimaging Flashcards

1
Q

what is a direct measurement of neural activity?

A

Electric and Magnetic Signals

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2
Q

Electroencephalography (EEG)

A
  • continuous recording of large populations of neurons
  • EEG associated w/ behavioral states (wakefullness)
  • Good temporal
  • poor spatial
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3
Q

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A

-Similar temporal resolution to EEG
-Better spatial resolution (no signal distortion)
􏰁***ID cortical functionality

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4
Q

what are indirect measurement of neural activity?

A

Metabolic Signals

1) Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
2) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

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5
Q

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

A
  • local changes in cerebral blood flow
  • use radioactive tracer (emits photons/gamma rays)
  • regional cerebral blood flow (rBCF) = patient @ rest Vs. patient performing cognitive task

-BAD = radioactive isoptope (Invasive) // Limited # of tests

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6
Q

2) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A

-magnetic properties of hemoglobin (O2 : deoxygenated)
=blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) effect

GOOD bcuz…

  • non-invasive & can be repeated
  • best spatial resolution
  • best temporal due to BOLD signal
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7
Q

previous Evolving Brain Theory

A

1) Neural circuitry is static
2) Cognitive functions & memory are localized
3) Information processing = ONLY serial processing
4) Brain = driven by EXTRINSIC sensory input
5) Brain function(s) VULNERABLE to single site injury
6) Clinical supporting evidence limited

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8
Q

current evolution brain theory

A

1) Neural circuitry is plastic
2) Cognitive functions & memory are distributed
3) Information processing = serial, parallel, & reciprocal
4) Brain = driven by internal, INTRINSIC cycles (intrinsic and extrinsic interaction)
5) Brain func(s) RESISTANT to degradation by single site injury
6) Clinical supporting evidence strong

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9
Q

single-source divergent networks define

A

one type of signaling molecule that influence numerous other target brain areas.

Often neurons w/in these nuclei have axons, which diverge & send projections to multiple brain regions

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10
Q

single-source divergent network characteristics

A
  • Early embryonic development
  • Support all cognitive funcs
  • “brain state modulatory controls”
    - Regulate information throughout brain
  • Organized in a hierarchy
  • Exhibit functional stability when local network damage
  • Created & altered by synaptic plasticity processes
  • Consist of many long-reaching axonal branches
  • Categorized by the NT utilized
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11
Q

5 Single-source Divergent Networks

A
  1. Dopamine(DA)
  2. Norepi (noradrenaline/adrenaline) /Epinephrine
  3. Histamine(His)
  4. Serotonin (5-HT/ 5-HTP)
  5. Acetylcholine(ACh)
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12
Q

5 Single-source Divergent Networks general features

A

-Each system = unique NT (All small NTs)
-Ca2+ dependent release
-Neurons that release a single NT are contained in nuclei =
brainstem, hypothalamus, and basal forebrain
-Network neurons have unmyelinated axons & highly arborized = synapse on many target

-All 5 networks are interconnected & work cooperatively together to control overall brain state (consciousness, attention, etc.)

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13
Q

Neural Networks Working Together:

A

w/in neural networks = circuits (excitatory & inhibitory) via = serial, parallel & reciprocal.
–also between each network

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14
Q

how is cognitive neuroscience studied?

A
  • Functional neuro imaging
  • Electrophysiological studies
  • Psychophysical experiments
  • Cognitive genetics
  • Traditional clinical studies
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15
Q

Nature (Genetics)

A
  • Necessary for laying neuronal groundwork
  • “Neural Darwinism” and apoptosis
  • Individual variability in genomic plan
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16
Q

Nurture (Experience)

A
  • Refinement of the neural system
  • Experience/stimuli alters synapses
  • “Wiring by firing”/ D. Hebb’s plasticity theory
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17
Q

Neuronal Networks/ Assemblies

A
  • groups of many neurons that tend to fire together
  • Synapses are continuously and reversibly altering
  • underpin all cognitive processes
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18
Q

Neural Darwinism

A

-neurobiology of consciousness
-brain is a somatic selection system that works in a manner similar to evolution
3 Stages = Developmental Selection// Experiential Selection // Mapping

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19
Q

Developmental Selection (Neural Darwinism)

A

Under genetic control
o Cell division & cell death
o Axon & cell migration taking place
o Growth factors, cytokines, & glutamate = key players

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20
Q

Experiential Selection (Neural Darwinism)

A

Under experiential control
o Functioning circuits created with somatosensory input
o Circuits created during developmental r strengthened
o Refinement of the network

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21
Q

Mapping (Neural Darwinism)

A

Numerous neural maps are formed by the brain
o maps = processing of signals from body & environment
oEx: 1 brain map = pressure r/c for the body –> brain
o Maps can interact w/ each other = further refinement

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22
Q

Building Neural Networks

follows Hebb’s synaptic plasticity (LTP, LTD)

A

**LTP needs pre & post neuronal firing
o Relies on protein kinase activity
o Produces increased synaptic efficiency & strength
**LTD requires “asynchronous” firing
o Relies on protein phosphatases activity
o Produces weakened synaptic strength & efficiency
–Both LTP & LTD need (+) of NMDA r/c and entry of Ca2+
􏰁–[Ca2+] onto postsynaptic neuron = LTP or LTD occurs
possibly use same set of regulatory proteins

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23
Q

(+) feedforward excitatory connection

A

-information from a lower level of a circuit being transmitted to a higher level
(Ex: LGB –> cortical)

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24
Q

(+) feedback excitatory connection

A

-info = lower –> higher –> lower level.

Ex: LGB –> ocrtical –> LGB

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25
Q

(+) lateral excitatory connection

A

communication btwn neurons within the same processing level (ex- all from LGN)

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26
Q

(-) feedforward inhibitory connection

A

output of one level decreases the activity of the next

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27
Q

(-) feedback inhibitory connection

A

output of a higher order level of a circuit decreases the input activity to that circuit

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28
Q

(-) lateral inhibitory connection

A

activity of one set of neurons can decrease the acivity of other neurons at same level. (LGB–> cortical –> other cortical areas)

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29
Q

Disinhibition

A

when an inhibiter inhibits = you get excitation

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30
Q

Divergence

A

-degree which a neuron projects input to a large number of target neurons (axon collaterals)

aka-ability of one NT to activate >1 r/c

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31
Q

Convergence

A

-degree which a neuron receives input from a large number of other neurons

aka-ability of different NTs to converge to same circuit

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32
Q

Circuit Types

A

1) Hierarchical

2) Local

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33
Q

Hierarchical Circuit Types

A
  • -each level is regulated by local circuits via…
    1. Serial processing X–> X–> X
    2. Parallel processing: info flows in a “side by side” manner
    3. Reciprocal processing: info flows back and forth
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34
Q

Local circuit

A
  • within hierarchical circuits & alter processing at each hierarchical level (via)
    1) Feed-forward (+/-)
    2) feedback connections (+/-)
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35
Q

Local Circuit Dynamics

A
  • sensory & motor systems from CNS & PNS create conscious awareness of internal & external environment
  • -PNS = “reliable” = not plastic
  • -CNS pathways are plastic (strength = activity-dependent)
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36
Q

Functional neuron types

A

1) sensory
2) motor
3) interneuron
4) modulatory neuron

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37
Q

sensory neuron

A
  • detecting stimuli r/c’s convert environmental stimuli –> electrical
    (ex: light, pressure, sound, etc.)
  • THEN electrical impulses –> chemical (NTs)
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38
Q

motor neurons

A

–transmit impulses from a central location of the CNS to a distal target which then stimulates a muscular or glandular response

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39
Q

interneuron

A
  • -within & between pathways

- convert chemical signals back into electrical signals

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40
Q

modulatory neruons

A

–regulation of neuronal integration for all sensory, motor & associative system input
o Modulate general & widespread func in CNS

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41
Q

The Complexity of the Nervous System (fun facts)

A

~90 billion neurons within brain
o ~30 billion in neocortex
o Cortex=~25% stellate neurons(~10,000 synap/neuron)
o other 75% = pyramidal neurons (~18,000 synap/neuron)

o Hundreds of trillions of synapses in total!

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42
Q

Cells of the Nervous System

A

1) Neurons = rapid communication via nerve impulses
2) neuroglial cells = non-neuronal cells
* *outnumber neurons in the CNS by a factor of 10

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43
Q

Neuroglial cells

A 
CNS
1) Oligodendrocytes
2) Astrocytes
3) Microglial cells
PNS
4) Schwann cells
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44
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

these glial cells send out protoplasmic processes that make contact with nearby axons and form myelin sheaths around them.

A single oligodendrocyte can myelinate multiple axons within the CNS

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45
Q

Astrocytes

A

1) Produce matrix & adhesion molecules
= guide developing neurons
2) Secrete growth factors = regulate morphology, differentiation, proliferation, & survival of neurons
3) Form blood-brain barrier via tight junctions
4) Regulate NT removal @ synaptic cleft
5) Detoxify the CNS (via sequestering)
6) IntRAcellular signaling & ~intERcellular signaling thru intracellular Ca2+ waves
7) Mediate astrogliosis (an increase in the # of astrocytes) in response to injury = attempt to reduce neural damage, often results in glial scar formation

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46
Q

Microglial cells

A

-small somas & numerous processes,
-mediate immune reactions within CNS
***retain the ability to divide.
1) Phagocytose degenerating cells that are undergoing apoptosis (esp. during development)
2) During development, they aid in fiber tract development, gliogenesis, and angiogenesis by secreting growth factors
o Involved in presenting antigens to T lymphocytes
o Become “reactive” (undergo amorphology change) and phagocytic during pathological circumstances in the adult CNS

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47
Q

Schwann cells

A

–a single Schwann cell will myelinate only a single axon segment.
–Multiple Schwann cells are needed to myelinate the entire length of a peripheral axon.
o Respond to injury by secreting growth factors, removing debris, providing structural support and guidance to regenerating axons

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48
Q

The Neural Triad:

A

Neurons, Glia and Vasculature

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49
Q

Neurons

A

–cells of numerous subtypes specialized for communication o All neurological processes depend on the complex cell to cell interactions among individuals neurons as well as groups of neurons

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50
Q

Neuroglial cells

A
  • -structural & functional support cells which carrying out diverse actions ranging from immune responses to myelination of axons
  • -3 types in CNS: astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, & microglia
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51
Q

Cerebral Vasculature

A
  • -supports brain development & function
  • –Contributes to neurogenesis
  • -Transports O2/nutrients & removes waste & CO2
  • -Endothelial cells interact with neurons, astrocytes, and microglia to form the blood-brain barrier (BBB)
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52
Q

Ca2+ Signaling of Astrocytes

A

–activated metabotropic r/c = signal transduction pathway (STP) = release of Ca2+ w/in astrocyte
= release of Ca2+-dependent NTs
(glutamate, ATP, D-serine) ****aka-“gliotransmitters”

  • -Ca2+ signaling w/in astrocytes = NOT all-or-none features.
  • *full extent to which astrocytes are involved in the regulation of synaptic activity remains to be determined
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53
Q

Tripartite Synapse

A

pre & post neuron & astrocyte

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54
Q

Gliotransmitter (ATP)
1) Target
2) Receptor
3) Function/Action

A

1) Glia to Glia
2) Metabotropic receptors
3) Decreases glial cell calcium level

55
Q

Gliotransmitter (Glutamate)
1) Target
2) Receptor
3) Function/Action

A

1) Neurons & Glia
2) • Neuron: Ionotropic r/c (AMPAR’s & NMDAR’s)
• Astrocyte: Metabotropic r/c
3) Enhances NT release & EPSPs
• Modulates glial calcium levels (increase or decrease)

56
Q

Gliotransmitter (D-Serine)
1) Target
2) Receptor
3) Function/Action

A

1) Postsynaptic Neuron
2) Ionotropic receptors (NMDAR’s)
3) Enhances EPSPs

57
Q

Overview: Glial Cell Function

A

–Regulate glucose & O2 available for neuronal functions (formation of the BBB)
–Promote neurogenesis & axonal migration in development
􏰁–Saltatory conduction possible &make conduction fast
􏰁–Initiate & participate in immune responses of brain
􏰁–Respond to neural injury & promote regeneration
􏰁–Detoxify the CNS (sequestering)
–Control [NTs] @ synapses
􏰁–Aid in synaptic transmission
􏰁–Gliotransmission (glia->glia talk via Ca2+ signaling)

58
Q

cortical columns =

A

group of neurons that process more complex operations

59
Q

properties of cortical columns

A

1) process sensory & motor as well as cognitive function
2) each column = ~100 neurons
3) 6 distinct layers
4) w/in a column = similar receptive field
5) columns can be linked together

60
Q

layers 1-3 (supragranular layer)

A

send reciprocal projections to other cortical columns

–surface layer

61
Q

layer 4

A

divides supragranular & infragranular

  • -receives info from thalamus
  • -sends input to other layers
62
Q

layer 5 & 6 (infragranular)

A
  • -input from supragranular of adjacent layers
  • -do NOT send projects back to adjacent columns
  • -send projections to extracortical areas (thalamus & motor sensory)
63
Q

cortical columns w/in the thalamus

A

receives input form all regions of cortex & subcortex

  • -“feedback circuit” (infragranular–>thalamus–>layer 4)
  • -info flow w/in cortex mediated by supragranular neurons while additional info from internal & external environment integrated by thalamus–> layer 4
64
Q

5 SSDN & sleep

A

circuits that promote arousal (wakefulness) & that promote sleep must be activated separately in order for sleep-wake cycle to proceed

65
Q

sleep-wake cycle stages

A

–Awake (all 5-SSDN active)
–Non-REM sleep (stages 1-4)
stages 1-2 = light sleep
stage 3 = moderate-deep sleep
stage 4 = deepest level of slow-wave sleep
–REM sleep

66
Q

Non-REM sleep

A
  • -triggered by release of adenosine from glial cells

- -characterized by noradrenergic neurons in locus coeruleus & serotonergic (5-HT) neurons in the raphe nuclei

67
Q

REM sleep

A

**–activation of cholinergic (ACh) neurons in pons (PPN)
= (+) effects of REM sleep
**–increase GABAergic neurons in reticular formation (pons) sends (-) neurons on LMN (lower motor neurons) in spinal cord = physical paralysis during REM
–EEG during REM = similar to awake
–vivid hallucinations
–~4 cycles of REM/night

68
Q

Norepinephrine/noradrenaline (Lc)

1) Awake
2) Non-REM
3) REM

A

1) Awake = on
2) Non-Rem = **ON (most are off except this & serotonin)
3) REM = off

69
Q

Histamine (T-Mn)

1) Awake
2) Non-REM
3) REM

A

1) Awake = on
2) Non-REM = off
3) REM = off

70
Q

Serotonin (nR)

1) Awake
2) Non-REM
3) REM

A

1) Awake = on
2) Non-REM = **ON (most are off except this & norepine)
3) REM

71
Q

Acetylcholine (PPT-NB)

1) Awake
2) Non-REM
3) REM

A

1) Awake = on
2) Non-REM = off
3) REM = **ON (only one that is on during REM)

72
Q

Dopamine (VTA)

1) Awake
2) Non-REM
3) REM

A

1) Awake = on
2) Non-REM = off
3) REM = off

73
Q

importance of REM sleep =

A

1) during development = adults=high % of sleep-wake cycle
2) REM rebound = sleep deprivation = increase REM %
3) deprived of REM = (-) cognitive tasks // memories

74
Q

importance of Non-REM sleep

A

conservation of energy & restore the mind

  • -“sleep induction” hypothesis = energy conservation
    • -awake = release NTs = deplete glial cell energy
    • -depleted glial energy = release adenosine
    • -r/c on cerebral cortex, thalamus, brainstem bind adenosine = (+) induction of non-REM sleep
    • -helps replenish glycogen stores of glial cells
75
Q

importance of all stages of sleep (brainwashing)

A
  • -principle fun of sleep = remove metabolic waste.
  • -cells contract = more space = CSF flow collects waste
  • -lack of waste remove = alzheimer’s
76
Q

positive emotions

A

modulated through dopamine (DA)

  • -on ventral segmental area (VTA) in brainstem –> basal forebrain (specifically the nucleus accumbens (nAc))
      • = inhibit amygdala
  • -VTA also goes to cortex –> medial prefrontal cortex (Med PFc) which aids in the processes in working memory & (+) emotion
  • -ant & post cingulated gyrus = focuses attention
  • -insula = modulation of emotions
77
Q

negative emotions

A

norepinephrine/ moradrenalin (NE/NA) & serotonin (5-HT) system:

  • -serotonergic neurons of the raphe nuclei (nR) & noradrenergic neurons on the locus coeruleus (Lc) & brainstem & neurons w.in the periaqueductal gray
  • Ln, nR, and PAG also go to context =
    • -orbital prefrontal cortex = working memory = (-) emotions
    • -anterior cingulate gyrus (ant CG), which focuses attention
    • -insula BOTH (+ & -) emotions
78
Q

VTA =

A

ventral tegmental area

-where dopaminergic neurons are (+ emotions)

79
Q

nAc =

A

nucleus accumbens
-dopaminergic neurons of the VTA (ventral segmental area) project to.
(+) = inhibit amygdala = positive emotions

80
Q

Med PFc

A

medial prefrontal cortex

–(+) working memory for positive emotions

81
Q

anterior & posterior cingulated gyrus =

A

focuses attention

-positive emotions

82
Q

insula

A

modulates both positive & negative emotions

83
Q

serotonin (5-HT) system

A

serotonergic neurons of the raphe nuclei (nR)

–for negative emotions

84
Q

norephnoephrine/ noradrenalin (NE/NA)

A

noradrenergic neurons of locus coerulus (Lc) & neurons in periadueductal gray (PAG) = (+) amygdala = suppress nAc (nucleus accumbens)

85
Q

orbital prefrontal cortex

A

processes working memory related to negative emotions

86
Q

anterior cingulate gyrus

A

focuses attention

87
Q

overview of positive emotion

A

brainstem (VTA) –> basal forebrain (+) nAc & (-) amygdala –> cortex (medial PFC & ant/POST CG & insula)

88
Q

overview of negative emotion

A

brainstem (Lc & nR & PAG) –> basal forebrain (-) nAc & (+) amygdala –> cortex (orbital PFC & ant ONLY CG & insula)

89
Q

nR =

A

raphe nuclei

90
Q

prefrontal cortex & working memory

A

1) lateral = (R) = perceptual data & (L) = symbolic
(language & semantic)
2) medial = positive emotions & memories
3) orbital = negative meotions & memories

91
Q

working memory networks

A

(brainstem/forebrain) = 5SSDN –>thalamus = (intralaminar nucleus & thalamic reticular nucleus & mediodorsal thalamic nucleus) –> cortex = lateral//medial//orbital

92
Q

control of attention is under which direction?

A

working memory of the prefrontal cortex

93
Q

brain regions involved in attention

A

1) 5 SSDNs
2) Tectum = auditory (inferior) & visual (superior)
3) Thalamic ARAS (intralaminar nucleus & thalamic reticular nucleus) & pulvinar nucleus = relay station for 5 SSDNs
4) cingulate gyrus = alertness
5) right lateral prefrontal cortex = perceptual
6) right superior parietal lobe = controls shifts in attention including spatial locations

94
Q

Long term memory =

A

aka-qualitative memory

1) declarative
2) non-declaritive

95
Q

declarative memory

A

knowledge with conscious access. (explicit memory)

1) semantic = world knowledge
2) episodic = personal knowledge

96
Q

nondeclarative memory

A
  • does NOT require intentional recall
    1) procedural memory
    2) priming
    3) classical conditioning
    4) non-associative learning
97
Q

procedural memory

A

involves learning of motor and cognitive skills

98
Q

priming

A

memory that involves change in response to stimulus as a result of previous exposure

99
Q

classical conditioning

A

“pavlovian conditioning” a conditioned stimulus parked with an unconditioned response which results in an evoked response to the conditioned stimulus

100
Q

non-associative learning

A

1) habituation = decreased response to a stimulus following repeated exposure
2) sensitization = increase response to a stimulus …

101
Q

Case Study H.M.

A

bilateral medial temporal lobectomy = anterograde amnesia (couldn’t form new memories)

  • working memory was still in tact BUT LTM was not
    1) MTL is necessary for memory
    2) storage of STM & LTM are different
    3) 2 distinct categories of long-term memory exists (explicit = declarative & implicit = nondeclaritive)
102
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

loss of info/ memories for a period of time prior to the event

103
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

loss of info/ memories following an event

104
Q

semantic knowledge =

A

facts, info, symbolic, language-based experience about the world
**declarative (explicit) & mediated by the medial temporal lobe (MTL)

105
Q

episodic knowledge =

A

personal events & experiences as well as emotional memories
**declarative (explicit) & mediated by the medial temporal lobe (MTL)

106
Q

evidence for medial temporal lobe & declarative memory =

A

–rats learned a task 1st the cut hippocampus = could still do the task
–rats had their hippocampus cut before = couldn’t do the task
therefore = hippocampus = memory consolidation

107
Q

pathways of the medial temporal lobe (MTL) & memory

A

“swtichboard” = keeps track of relevant circuits by working memory. utilizes glutamate. when needs info later = receives info from 5 SSDNs & the thalamic ARAS

1) hippocampus
2) amygdala
3) rhinal cortex (perirhinal & entorhinal cortex)

108
Q

hippocampus & memory =

A
  • parahippocampus*

- spatial memory

109
Q

amygdala & memory =

A

encoding & storage of hippocampal-dependent memories

110
Q

rhinal cortex & memory =

A

1) perirhinal = object recognition
2) entorhinal cortex = interface between the neocortex and hippocampus
- -important in formation & consolidation of episodic & spatial memories
- -sends projections to the dentate gyrus (part of hippocampus) which also aids in formation of episodic memories

111
Q

brainstem/forebrain –> thalamus –> cortex (the 5SSDN)

A

5SSDN –> thalamic ARAS (IIn & TRn) –>

a) hippocampus –(dentate gyrus)
b) rhinal cortex –(perirhinal or entorhinal cortex)
c) amygdala

**IIn = interlaminar nucleus
TRn = thalamic reticular nucleus
112
Q

two forms of LTP in the hippocampus

A

1) early-LTP (neurons (+) for short time 3-24h)

- -new proteins creates & synaptic morphology changes

113
Q

LTP & associativity

A

induction of LTP by (+) of 2 sets of synapses that are activated concurrently
(strengthen connections btw relevant info)

114
Q

LTP & specificity “phenomenon”

A

LTP at one set of synapses on a postsynaptic cell whereas adjacent synapses that were not activates do not exhibit LTP-like changes
–thought to exclude non-relevant connections

EX: you can see/smell a rose even when one isn’t infront of you. but it won’t activate the p/ways of an onion.

115
Q

non-declaritive memory characteristics

A
  • -memory w/out awareness
  • -experience alters behavioral performance unconsciously
  • -implicit memories may be preferences, habits, dispositions that are inaccessible
  • -NOT dependent on medial temporal lobe (MTL)
    1) procedural/habit
    2) priming
    3) classical conditioning
    4) non-associative
116
Q

procedural /habit

A

motor & cognitive skills (ex-how to read)

  • -context specific/ inflexible (tying your shoe)
  • -damage to basal ganglia = deficits
117
Q

procedural /habit is located where in the brain?

A

straitum

118
Q

priming is found where in the brain?

A

neocortex

119
Q

simple classical conditioning is found where in the brain?

A

1) emotional = amygdala which can be controlled by orbital prefrontal cortex (negative emotion) or medial prefrontal cortex (positive emotions) or nAc (positive emotions)
2) skeletal = cerebellum

120
Q

non-associative is located where in the brain?

A

reflex pathways

121
Q

priming =

A

–ability to recognize a stimulus due to a prior exposure. –activation of neocortex

122
Q

non-associative learning

A

most primitive form of learning with basic nervous system

  • -does not rely on association of 2 stimuli to elicit a response
  • -non-associative learning = sensitization & habituation
123
Q

sensitization =

A

biologically useful = cues CNS about novel stimuli

  • -increased response to a stimulus
  • -repeated novel//harmful stimuli
  • -sensory-motor refle pathways
  • -short-term potentiation (STP) enhance release of NT from the presynaptic terminal
124
Q

habituation =

A

biologically useful = allows the organism to ignore stimuli that have lost their novelty or meaning

  • -decreased response to stimulus
  • -repeated benign stimuli
  • -sensory-motor reflex pathways
  • -short-term depression (STD) suppression of NT release from the pre-synaptic terminal
125
Q

research lining implicit memory to emotions

A

non-conscious emotional signals may factor into decision making before conscious processes do.
–both mediated by the ventro-medial prefrontal cortex (VM PFC)

126
Q

ventro-medial prefrontal cortex (VM PFC)

A
  • -storage of personal info on rewards & punishments
  • -region ~ = non-conscious (implicit) responses = intuition
  • -lesions = little emotion & no empathy
    • -perform well on IQ & memory tests//bad decision making
    • -intact factual knowledge but emotional memories gone
    • -reduced socially appropriate goal-directed behavior
  • -PET scans = violent criminals = less blood to VM PFC
  • theory of mind & empathy*
127
Q

characteristics of working memory

A
  • real time // holds 7 (+/-2) but now possibly only 4
  • goal-direction action
    1) planning –developing & executing strategy
    2) selection & suppression –attention to only important (+)
    3) task monitoring –keeping relevant info “online”
128
Q

Volume Synaptic Transmission

A
  • -5- SSDN = axons are unmyelinated.
  • -release of NTs = non-directed synapses & in response to intracellular Ca2+ from varicosities of the axons.
  • -Numerous NT can diffuse freely = “omnidirectional”.
  • -Long duration of modulatory effects
129
Q

Thalamic Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS)

A
  • -P/w’s involved in producing the state of consciousness OR reticular activating system (RAS)
  • -several circuits originate from brainstem & ascend –> intralaminar thalamic nuclei (ILn) & thalamic reticular nucleus (TRn) of the thalamus –> cerebral cortex
  • *two main functional nuclear relay regions: ILn & TRn
  • -intralaminar thalamic nuc
  • -thalamic reticular nuc
130
Q

Norepinepherine/Noradrenaline (NE/NA) System

A

–nucleus = locus coeruleus
–either inhibitory or excitatory
–funx: fight/flight // (-) emotion // non-REM sleep //
learning & memory // cognitive performance

131
Q

Histamine (His) System

A
  • -neurons in the hypothalamus = tuberomammilary nucleus (TMn)
  • -effects in CNS = excitatory only
  • -funx = arousal & attention // body energy // circadian rhythms // learning & memory
132
Q

Serotonin (5-HT) System

A

–Raphe nuclei in brainstem
–inhibitory or excitatory influences
–funx = attention & arousal // Inhibition behavior //
(-) emotions // learning & memory // non-REM

133
Q

Acetylcholine (ACh) System

A
  • -nucleus basalis of Meynert (NB) & pontopeduncular nucleus (PPN)
  • -NB = @ thalamus && PPM = midbrain
  • -excitatory only action of ACh at the NMJ,
  • -excitatory or inhibitory in the brain
  • -funx = attention & arousal // learning & memory // REM sleep

Neurophysiology (3 decks)

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