FS exam 2 Flashcards
Calcium functions p26
structure to bone and teeth; soluble: blood clot, muscle contract, nerve transmit, some enzyme func
what are some calcium deficiency?
heart stop beat, blood no clot, nerve no work, 骨头有问题
where is calcium stored?
bone
deficiency in children?
no growth, poor bones and teeth, malformed bones (rickets)
how is calcium deficiency related to lead?
lead stored in bones, calcium too low= Ca extracted from bones= no bone to store lead= lead too much in blood
what is Osteoporosis? Osteoporosis is affected by? p26 who does it affect?
holes in bones related to calcium. strong genetic, age and hormonal components; women past menopause and elderly (major cause of broken bones)
what causes Osteoporosis?
由于genetic, 当 sex hormone 减少，calcium metabolism 改变, 难absorb。
why does Osteoporosis affect women mostly?
female 比 male 早过 menopause, 比较早停止制作hormone。而且女生活的比较久，男的在还没这个病前就挂了。
what are some medical development for Osteoporosis? how to counter Osteoporosis physicaly?
medications tt slow loss of Ca, reverse loss; weight bearing exercise increase bone mass and Ca accumulation
phosphorous func? p27
buffer to maintain pH, Metabolism of protein, lipid and CHO,Component of ATP, DNA and RNA
how does phosphorous and Ca work together?
one high, another cant absorb; they compete
where is Mg found?
bones
Mg func?
essential for enzyme tt react with ATP (for energy)
why is it not preferable that enzymes use Ca for Mg?
diff minerals activate diff enzymes; control mineral locations = control enzyme activity
Mg deficiencies?
Failure to grow followed by weakness; Irritability; Irregular heartbeat; Heart and kidney damage; Seizures (tetany, an extreme and prolonged contraction of muscles)
who would most likely have Mg deficiencies? why?
alcoholics/people with kidney disease/ppl who lose fluid, cuz kidney manage mineral concen
how does cell maintain fluid?
Na high=outside, K high=inside; Na pumped out and K in so that cell has a diff to measure
the fluids outside and inside a cell are made up of what?
outside: sodium and chloride; inside: potassium and phosphate
what is Na’s func? p31
regulate body water; main extracellular cation (+), nerve and muscle func
does Na cause blood pressure?
not definite; 10% respond to decrease, no K and Ca also cause; 90% ppl increase Ca more effectively than reducing Na. salt-sensitive: 会有高血压和心脏病几率
what are the factors of high blood pressure? p31
Obesity, Genetics, Inadequate intakes of K, Ca & Mg, Exercise, Relaxation, Moderation in alcohol consumption
potassium functions?
main intracellular cation, important in nerve and muscle func
what could cause K loss?
vomiting, diarrhea, too much sweating
why should people watch out while taking diuretics that function by causing potassium to be secreted from the body?
eat too much Na and not enough K not ok
Cl function?
main extracellular anion (-), make up HCl (digestion), loss Cl = lose Na
what can cause iron deficiency anemia?
diarrhea, peptic ulcers 胃溃疡 and excessive blood loss during menstruation
how does body maintain iron in body?
Fe no secrete from healthy kidney; many ways to limit: 其中一个是 a protein limit transferrin to bind more。如果 iron level 正常，身体反而会absorb less
how can Fe be stored? where? how is it transported?
to be stored, have to attach to protein; store in liver attached to Ferritin; transferrin
what happens when there is too much Fe in ferritin?
ferritin will be converted to hemosiderin and precipitate, which cause liver damage
what happens when transferrin is saturated with iron?
iron usually is absorbed into cells that line intestine. but then it won’t be absorbed, and will be lost when the cells are replaced
Hemochromatosis is? what are the symptoms? how can it be cured?
genetic lack of the transferrin limiting protein.不能阻止transferrin绑更多铁 liver damage. blood draws/donation
how do babies get iron?
(牛奶很少铁) 小孩出生时fetal hemoglobin会换成正常hemoglobin, 铁被重新利用, fetal hemoglobin inefficient, synthesis of normal hemoglobin 把氧气运输更有效。baby有2-3月的铁
what is iodine’s function? where is it stored?
thyroxine (thyroid hormone) 需要它才能工作. in thyroid as thyroglobulin (complex protein)
what is the cause of goiter?
iodine is low, thyroxin没办法工作，thyroid enlarge to make more thyroxin; too much iodine might cause it too
what is copper’s function?
some enzyme’s cofactor; iron utilization (in form of ceruloplasmin, a protein complex)
what is Manganese’s function?
required for some enzyme’s function
what can Manganese deficiency cause? what can excess Manganese deficiency cause?
damaged blood clot, low serum cholesterol, dermatitis (皮炎), hair color change; symptoms similar to Parkinson’s disease
why is Zinc important?
p30 related to follicle (insulin)- stimulating and luetinizing hormone. Cofactor for carbonic anhydrase and alkaline phosphatase. genital organs 成长, 防止anemia, taste acuity, 防止 a type of dwarfism
how can Zinc deficiency be caused? what would it cause?
consumption of only plants that contain factors that bind Zn, taking copper supplements (iron as well); retard growth
what is Fluorine’s function?
p30 prevents the acid produced by the bacteria in plaque from dissolving enamel, 被acid damage 的牙齿可以 repair; 不能repair cavities, 可是可以reverse 轻微 tooth decay 而防止新的cavities形成。骨头构造
what happens when there is too much Fluorine? or just enough?
2 PPM: teeth mottle (斑点）1 PPM: reduction in dental cavaties
how can Selenium be toxic? what are some symptoms of its deficiency?
plants grown on soils high in selenium; similar to that of Vitamin E
what is Selenium’s function?
part of enzyme, glutathione peroxidase. Considered to be an antioxidant
what is Chromium’s function? how might it be helpful?
glucose tolerance, stimulation of fatty acid synthesis, insulin metabolism and protein digestion; effects on adult diabetics, may prevent heart disease
Nickel’s function?
related to nickeloplasmin (protein)
Vanadium’s function?
Increased growth rate and increased hematocrit (血球量）in chickens
Silicon’s function? what is a good source?
may be important for bone development; beer
which minerals seldom deficient? always?
phosphorus (long-term consumption of antacids), chlorine (强力reduce Na), Copper (rare in US), Manganese (rare in US), Nickel ( no man)
labeling must contain?
Serving size; Servings/container; Calories/serving; Protein content; Carbohydrate content; Lipid content; % of RDA for key nutrients
what is the revised format?
p32 Mandatory labeling (Federal law - Interstate); label content related to today’s concerns; Require cholesterol, saturated fatty acid content, dietary fiber and calories from fat; Remove thiamin, niacin, and riboflavin; Established Mandatory serving sizes; Flavors, colors spaces declared specifically; Define Low fat etc.
what is NLEA?
nutrition labeling & Education Act
for which nutrients Daily Value meant “most consumed in a day”, but for others it is a goal?
Total fat, Saturated fat, Unsaturated fat, Cholesterol, Total carbohydrate, Sodium, Potassium
what defines “Free”?
contains none/trivial/”physiologically inconsequential” of, one or more of: fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, sodium, sugars, and calories.
what defines “reduced”?
contains at least 25% less of a nutrient or of calories than the regular, or reference, product
what defines “healthy”?
low in fat, saturated fat and contain limited cholesterol and sodium.
what defines disqualifying nutrients? list them.
not allow a health claim on a food with too much unhealthy nutrient. fat, saturated fat, cholesterol and sodium
what is the 10% rule?
in addition to being a “healthy food”, if its single-item, it must provide at least 10% of one or more of vitamins A or C, iron, calcium, protein, or fiber
BMR is affected by? how do the factors affect it?
Age (older=deacrease), Gender (man more muscle, burn more calories). Body composition, Nutritional status, Drugs
what happens to BMR when food is short in supply?
brain sends stronger hunger signals or decrease BMR
what are some drugs that increase BMR? what is the side effect?
Amphetamines, ephedra; inhibit (stop) appetite
what is the one change in BMR that the body does not resist?
body composition: increase muscle= increase BMR
how much Kcal is required to reduce 1lb?
3500 Kcal
what would happen if you try to lose weight in a few days?
loss of water, not fat. eating normal food for only one day would get it back
what happens when the body restricts calories? what happens when glycogen is all used up? what happens if carbo. and protein are both low?
low calorie then body use glycogen for brain and fat for tissue; if glycogen is out, body makes carbo. and convert protein to glucose (fat cannot be made to glucose); if carbo and protein are low, protein from muscle made into carbo., might result cardiac arrest
how does XENICAL(Alli) work?
interfere with digestion of nutrients, but not absorb calories. stop enzyme from breaking down triglycerides into glycerol and free fatty acids. usually interfere enzymes that digest starch or fat (ex: block lipase and no fat)
what are the side effects of XENICAL(Alli)?
油没有消化，所以有gas oily discharge, increased bowel movements that can’t be controlled if there is too much oil
what compounds can block appetite receptors in the brain?
Amphetamines, Serotonin altering drugs, Wellbutryn, Zoloft, Meridia
how does the brain respond to Appetite Suppressants?
if signal blocked, brain sends more. if blocked again, brain makes more receptors
what should a good diet plan include?
ate less, more active, learn what a real serving size is, not binge (暴食), occasional indulgence is OK, reduction of 500 to 1,000 kcal per day, increase activity by 500 Kcal/day, Medical supervision for diets below 1200 kcal/day
what is eating disorder?
extreme reduction of food intake or overeating, or feelings of extreme distress or concern about body weight or shape
what are 3 types of eating disorders?
anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, “eating disorders not otherwise specified (EDNOS)”
who is more likely to get eating disorders? age-wise and sex-wise?
adolescence or young adulthood, but maybe childhood or later adulthood. female>male
how are eating disorders treated?
Psychological and medicinal treatments are effective for most. For chronic, tailored to individual needs: medications; nutritional counseling; and psychotherapy. may need hospitalized to treat malnutrition or to gain weight
what are the symptoms of Anorexia Nervosa?
pg 36 & 37 没有 menstruation, bone thinning (osteopenia or osteoporosis), brittle hair and nails, dry skin and hair, growth of fine hair over body (lanugo, “Peach Fuzz”), mild anemia, muscle weakness and loss, constipation, low blood pressure, slowed breathing and pulse, internal body temperature drop, lethargy 昏睡, dehydration, kidney failure
how do people with Anorexia Nervosa lose weight?
dieting and exercising, vomiting, misusing laxatives 泻药, diuretics 利尿 or enemas 灌肠
how do how do people with Anorexia Nervosa die?
cardiac arrest, electrolyte 电解液 and fluid imbalances, Suicide
what are the 3 components of treating Anorexia Nervosa?
restore to healthy weight; treat psychological issues; 减少或除去 behaviors or thoughts, and prevent relapse.
can medication treat Anorexia Nervosa?
目前没有。说antidepressants, antipsychotics or mood stabilizers可以，但最近数据说明这些不能防止复发。而且在第一个关键阶段（restore weight) 没有药是有用的
if medicine can’t treat Anorexia Nervosa, what can?
psychotherapy: 家庭式的可以让父母担起喂食孩子的责任，有效提升 eating habits and moods。有些说药物和therapy一起更有用，但因人而异。最近的防御study做的不错：online intervention program防止高危险妇女
what are some symptoms of Bulimia nervosa?
p37 depression, anxiety, substance abuse, electrolyte imbalances, gastrointestinal problems, oral and tooth-related problems, inflamed and sore throat, swollen glands 在喉咙和 jaw 下面, worn tooth enamel, sensitive and decaying teeth, gastroesophageal reflux disorder, intestinal distress and irritation from laxative abuse, kidney problems from diuretic abuse, dehydration from purging of fluids
how is Bulimia nervosa different from Anorexia Nervosa regarding age and weight?
ppl with bulimia have normal weight, and it is more common. Anorexia nervosa = self-starvation, excessive weight loss. Bulimia nervosa = binging & purging
what are some behaviors of Bulimia nervosa?
p37 r吃很多 (binge-eating), 不能控制eating, 随后purge (vomiting, excessive use of laxatives or diuretics), fasting, exercise. 怕变胖，想减肥, 对自己体型不高兴，disgust or shame所以secretly，但知道自己有问题
what are some behaviros of Anorexia Nervosa?
pg 36 Denial, Highly intelligent, perfectionists, Low self-esteem, loss of appetite, suppress urge to eat, emaciation憔悴, 追求 thinness, 不愿意 maintain normal weight, body image distortion, 害怕 gain weight, disturbed eating behavior
how is Bulimia nervosa treated?
medication, nutritional counseling and psychotherapy。 especially cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)：change binging and purging and eating attitudes. 可以是 individually oriented or group-based
what is fluoxetine (Prozac)?
antidepressants, (唯一由Food and Drug Administration 认可可以治疗 bulimia） help depression, anxiety, binge-eating and purging, reduces chance of relapse, and improves eating attitudes.
what are some risk factors for athletes that are potentially at risk of anorexia?
Individual & endurance sports, Sports emphasizing appearance, Gymnasts, runners, wrestlers, swimmers
what is the psychiatric condition with the highest mortality rate?
Anorexia
what is the DSM-IV Diagnostic Criteria for Anorexia?
Refusal to maintain body weight > normal minimum for age and height (i.e. BMI < 17.5).即使太瘦还是很怕变胖，对自己身材认知不对/ denial of the seriousness of low body weight. 连续三次没有MC
what is Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4th Ed. (DSM-IV)?
American Psychiatric Association generally accepted condition & guidelines for diagnosis
what is the DSM-IV Diagnostic Criteria for Bulimia?
incapable of controlling the urge to binge; resorting to vomiting, laxatives, diuretics, exercising, etc.; Purges at least 3 times per week for 3 months. Self-evaluation is unduly influenced by body shape and weight.
problems with purging
p38 Electrolyte imbalance, irregular heartbeat, heart failure, and death; ulcers, rupture of stomach &/ esophagus; Tooth decay & staining; irregular bowel movements; Kidney &/ liver damage; swelling (chubby cheeks); Menstrual 有问题; Anemia; Malnutrition
what is “Pro-ana” & “Pro-mia”?
an Internet-based movement with Websites, chat room discussion groups that encourages eating disorder
what are the characteristics of bacteria?
Prokaryotic (no nucleus or any other internal membrane systems= Small size.
how are bacteria reproduced?
p39 binary fission= 2 identical daughter cells.Bacteria only 1 chromosome and 1 copy. copy 1 chromosome, copies attached to diff spot on plasma membrane, bacteria gets bigger chromosomes are separated, membrane formed and separate cells. simple=fast reproduce.
what is plasmid? how is plasmid beneficial to bacteria?
small circles of DNA with only a few genes. extra genes. not required, but beneficial sometimes: give resistance to certain antibiotics.
where do bacteria get plasmid?
absorb from other bacteria growing with them.
how do plasmid reproduce?
independently of the main chromosome
what is the function of F plasmid and R plasmid?
F: allow conjugation; R: carry resistance genes
what are the factors that effect bacteria growth?
p39 Nutrients, pH, Oxygen tension, Temperature, Water activity, Presence of other microorganisms.
how does nutrient affect bacteria growth?
p39 Some can survive on a source of C, N and a few trace minerals. fastidious: 需要很多nutrients. ex: food poisoning organisms
how does pH affect bacteria growth?
p39 大部分喜欢 7.0., 有些 acid tolerant. no pathogenic below 4.6. (有可能除了E. coli), Some spoilage 甚至更低也可以
what are low acid foods? how are they processed?
p39 Foods with pH> 4.6. 会导致疾病的细菌不能在酸性生存，所以pH>4.6的食物不杀菌，会比较多process
what are the different types of microorganisms identified by their ability to live in oxygen?
p40 aerobic: 需要oxygen；anaerobic：觉得oxygen toxic；facultative：有没有都可以生长,但有更好
why many refrigerated foods are stored vacuum packaged？how to prevent anaerobic bacteria?
slow growth of 微生物; usually refrigeration
what does it mean by water activity? what affects water activity?
p40 availability of water to enter into chemical reactions or support microbial growth. 可以绑水的 substance 如salts, sugars will lower the water activity
how does water activity affect bacteria growth?
p40 在low water activities, 有些微生物可以有些不可以生存。大部分时候，salt or sugar 可以控制 undesirable organisms
why is jam stored on shelves in stores rather than in the refrigerator? wouldn’t it go bad?
water is tied up with sucrose，微生物没有水用，所以没办法把jam弄坏
how do other organisms affect bacteria growth?
p40 many harmless, fast-growing organisms slow growth of a few harmful ones. 有些会secrete substances into the growth medium that 防止其他人生长.（ex: Penicillin）
how are microorganisms classified according to the temperature range they can survive and grow in?
p40 Psychrophilic: 20 °C or below/ at 0° Mesophilic: 20° to 40°C; Thermophilic: above 50°C
what is Pathogen?
可以导致疾病的生物
what causes Food Intoxication?
食物中毒 an illness caused by the consumption of a food containing a toxin. 是chemical引起疾病，而不是生物。但 chemical有可能是 microorganism留下的
what causes food Infection? what is a common example?
consumption of living (pathogenic) microorganisms. ex:
what is Salmonella “poisoning”? what are the symptoms?
an ex of food infection. fever, last longer than intoxications.
what is Endotoxins?
p40 complex lipopolysaccharides associated with the cell envelope of gram negative bacteria. usually tightly bound to the cell and not released until the bacteria split apart (lyses)
what is the diff between food infection and food intoxication?
food infection: 吃掉那个生物，它会长到后来cause symptoms often including fever. intoxication: 生物可能死了，但它弄出来的 toxin还是会 cause symptoms (not fever)，而且比infection快
what is Mycotoxin? what is its characteristic? what is an example?
exotoxin produced by a mold. 大部分不是 proteins, 所以比较耐 heating，煮饭也不能除去 toxicity. aflatoxin: produced by toxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus .
what are bacteria Spores? what is its characteristic? what are some examples?
细菌的 survival form，用来对付有害环境。有时耐heating。Fungal spores and spores from yeast 大部分时候用 mild heat treatment就可以destroy
what are the 2 conditions for food poisoning?
food contaminated and temperature abuse
what is the danger zone for pathogens to affect human bodies? does it make us completely safe?
above 140°F, lower than 40°F: most can’t grow. 40 -140: perfect; 保持 refrigerator T or hot 不会阻止所有 microbial growth, 可是会阻止 pathogens.
what are some sources of Salmonella? p41
Intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals and fecal contamination from infected animals。poultry products like eggs。 Reptiles。 fecal material
what are some symptoms and consequences of Salmonella? p41
Fever, nausea, vomiting, cramps, diarrhea. symptoms appears 24h after eating contaminated food。 对很老，很年轻，或 immune defiecient, death may occur。一般成年人不会有长期影响
what are some causes for Salmonella? p41 how could irrigation be a problem as well?
if animals improperly slaughtered，动物肠胃可能感染肉。Cutting boards 被感染，然后拿去切不会煮的东西。被contaminated的东西被 temperature abuse 会导致细菌增长，可能会disease outbreak。irrigation and flood water 被动物粪便感染，弄到生菜上面，生菜是生吃的
how can Salmonella be prevented?
不要接触生病的动物和他们的粪便和产品。没煮的东西放 refrigerator 防止organisms multiply。即使感染的东西煮过也安全了。防止 cross contamination
what are some sources of Staphylococcus aureus (Staph)?
Sores, Boils, Infected skin areas, Nasal passages of man and animals
what are some symptoms of Staphylococcus aureus (Staph)?
Vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nausea, chills, and subnormal body temperature (被感染后1-6天发生）没有 Fever。症状持续一天
what are some causes of Staphylococcus aureus (Staph)?
当可以在食物里生长时，Toxigenic strains produce heat stable enterotoxin。Toxin is heat stable - organism is not。食物被感染，而且temperature abuse允许细菌产生毒素
how can Staphylococcus aureus (Staph) be prevented? can cooking eliminate it?
food handlers wear gloves and train them in proper handling techniques. maintaining温度 below 40F or above 140F. 如果毒素已经产生，cooking也没用
what is the source of Clostridium botulinum (botulism)?
primarily soil。
what is the characteristic of Clostridium botulinum (botulism)?
Anaerobic厌氧, fastidious需要很多营养。most heat resistant pathogen. adverse conditions it forms spores that are difficult to destroy.
when does Clostridium botulinum (botulism) not produce toxin? what is the characteristic of the toxin?
pH’s below 4.6不生产毒素, toxin 不耐热。potent
what are the symptoms of Clostridium botulinum (botulism)?
Double vision, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, muscle paralysis, and finally respiratory failure.在吃掉毒素后 24-36 有症状。不及时吃 antitoxin, 一周内death by respiratory failure
what are the causes of Clostridium botulinum (botulism)?
pH> 4.6, 产生 potent exotoxin。Improper heat processing: high protein foods, baked potatoes, home canned peppers
how can Clostridium botulinum (botulism) be prevented?
Proper processing of low acid food。 Neurotoxin can be destroyed by heating (home canned beans, corn, and meat containing products.) 不可能Prevent contamination by spores。Baked potatoes 不能放在室温太久
why can’t Clostridium botulinum (botulism) grow in intestinal tract even though it is anaerobic ?
pH too low, too many competitors.
how is Infant botulism caused? what are the sources? what is the consequence?
pH 不是很低, botulinum spores可以繁殖。 temporary paralysis of muscles in the neck. 蜂蜜，所以小于一岁的最好不要吃
what are the symptoms of Clostridium perfringens (perfringens)?
Diarrhea, cramps, but vomiting is rare.
what are the causes of Clostridium perfringens (perfringens)? is it intoxication or infection?
煮过之后杀菌，但杀不掉 perfringens spores。之后如果放室温，它会繁殖。被吃掉后在 intestines里sporulate，最后产生毒素。both intoxication and infection
how can Clostridium perfringens (perfringens) be prevented?
Proper cooking and cooling, 大份的gravy and 和 roasts放冰箱时要注意，因为他们花比较久时间冷却。冷掉的东西再煮一次才吃
how are Clostridium perfringens and Clostridium botulinum related? what is the function of the toxic? p42
都是 anaerobic and form spores. Botulism：吃掉毒素造成的。perfringens:吃掉细菌，它在肠胃发现活不下去所以产生spore，从而释放毒素。毒素造成 diarrhea 让孢子活下去
what is the source of E. coli? what kind of food is it present in?
large intestine of animals。raw and undercooked meats, cheeses, lettuce, unpasteurized milk, raw fin fish, cream pies, mashed potatoes and other prepared foods.
what causes E. coli problems? p42
从intestinal tract到 feces。Slaughter and milking 感染食物。细菌一般在外表，所以煮饭时就会杀掉，但是碎肉（汉堡）把细菌弄散，所以没有煮完全会有细菌幸存。吃一点就会得病。expose to new type of E. coli (foreign water)
what are some symptoms of E. coli? p42
Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome (HUS): kidney failure in children 主要原因。abdominal pain, cramps, nausea, vomiting, bloody diarrhea and occasionally fever. Central nervous system disease, seizures, coma and blood clots in the brain, 甚至 death.
how to prevent E. coli?
Food-protection education, 煮完全直到没汁, Avoid cross-contamination, Good personal hygiene 尤其洗手
what are the characteristic of Bacillus cereus?
aerobic, spore former, 孢子防御cooking
what are the causes of Bacillus cereus?
怕饭变硬，所以held rice at improper temperatures. 冷却时，孢子在湿暖环境繁殖
what are the symptoms of Bacillus cereus?
vomiting, diarrhea, or both
what are the sources of Campylobacter jejuni (Camplyobacter)?
intestinal tracts of swine, cattle, sheep, turkeys, chickens. raw milk, city water, and under cooked chicken
what are the symptoms of Campylobacter jejuni (Camplyobacter)?
diarrhea (watery/sticky) fever, abdominal pain, nausea, headache and muscle pain. Complications: meningitis, urinary tract infections, and reactive arthritis
what are the causes of Campylobacter jejuni (Camplyobacter)?
contaminated water. improperly processed poultry. cross contamination.
what is the source of Listeria monocytogenes (Listeria)?
feces and milk of humans and animals. ice cream, Brie and refrigerated ready-to-eat foods
what are the symptoms of Listeria monocytogenes (Listeria)?
septicemia, meningitis, encephalitis, and intrauterine or cervical infections in pregnant women, 可能导致 spontaneous abortion or stillbirth. disorders开始后，跟着是 flu-like symptoms including persistent fever.
what are the characteristics of Listeria monocytogenes (Listeria)? how does that make its process diff?
high mortality rate. 少数能在cold生存的pathogens 。 不会在吃之前加热的、冷着吃的食物，要加强防御在处理之后会出现的感染。（ ice cream, cheese and luncheon meats）孕妇建议不要吃ready to eat food，因为常在abortion后才发现Listeria
what are the causes of Noroviruses? where might it occur?
contaminated food or water, but most probably occurs via person to person transmission. “Cruiseship virus”
what is the cause and source of Hepatitis A Virus (HAV)? what are the symptoms? how to prevent?
infected food handlers; shellfish from contaminated water or fresh produce。infection targets the liver, 会有 fever, anorexia, nausea, malaise, headache and jaundice and dark-colored urine; 也可能没有症状。vaccine, Proper hygiene and safe food handling
how is Aflatoxin produced? where is it found? what is its trait? how can it be prevented?
a mycotoxin produced by some strains of the mold, Aspergillus flavus。found in nuts, moldy grains, peanuts, peanut butter and milk from cows fed moldy grains。carcinogenic (can cause cancer)。 avoided in grains if they are properly dried.
how is Blanching done? what is it used on?
加热一下inactivate enzyme that could degrade color, flavor or other quality attributes, 再者杀掉 microorganisms and so lead to increased product shelf life. 主要是 improve product quality，而不是安全问题。fruits and vegetable
what are the two main objectives of Pasteurization? is it sterile?
destroy all pathogenic microorganisms that might grow in a specific product. Extension of shelf life by decreasing number of spoilage organisms present. not sterile
how is Pasteurization done?
heating: 杀掉会在储存的食物里生长的的 disease-causing organisms.
what is Pasteurization aimed to kill? what does it not kill?
Milk for tuberculosis. staph, salmonella or any other pathogen that contaminate the milk. Apple juice: kill yeast so that 没有 fermentation 或 pathogens.不杀 spores of clostridia.
why does milk still go bad?
Pasteurized 的食物还是有细菌活下来了，又加不怕冷。虽然不好吃，但还是安全的
what is cold pasteurization? what is it used on?
use special filters to remove the bacteria and not affect flavor. ex: beer, apple juice
what is Sterilization? why does it take such a long time? what is the time called? p43
complete destruction of all microorganisms. (and spores)。到达需要温度然后把食物整个加热需要时间。从加热到最终温度叫come up time
what are the factors that affect come up time?
Size of container, Size of product, Viscosity of product, Temperature difference, Container material, Agitation
what is Commercial Sterility?
所有 pathogenic and toxin forming organisms, organisms capable of growth and spoilage under normal handling and storage conditions被杀了。一个罐头病菌全杀光了，但是有耐热的spore活下来。它们不会造成伤害，顶多spoilage，因为它们要在高温才能生长
what is 12-D? what is the purpose of it?
孢子数降到 factor of 10-12，是legal processing for 低酸、无氧储存的食物。孢子在食品里的几率永远在，但是这是个 safety margin, an acceptable risk
how does drying work? what are the requirements?
lowers water activity, microorganisms cannot grow.
economical and must not damage food product.
what is sun drying? what are some that uses this and some that do not?
Oldest method of drying. used for grains, fruits (raisons), coconut, etc. Not for like milk or meat.
what is Spray drying? how is it done? what is it used on and not used on?
gives high quality product. material sprayed into a column of hot air and the water evaporates. limited to fluid enough products. (not for mashed potatoes)
how is Drum drying done? what are the advantages and disadvantages? what is it used on?
把东西放在 heated stainless steel drum. high temperature causes more off flavors than with spray drying, but almost any product can be drum dried. viscous products like pumpkin, potatoes, etc.
how is Freeze drying done? what are the advantages and disadvantages? what are some products that can use this?
在fairly low temperature, 一个冻住的东西碰到vacuum，水会从固体到气体= sublimation. gentle, but expensive. instant coffees and other high value products. Almost anything can be freeze dried including pets.
how is Refrigeration done?
slows all and stops most growth. doesn’t make food last forever, but it greatly increases the time before spoilage is a problem.
what is the only pathogen that can grow in the cold?
listeria
how is frozen done? what are the advantages and disadvantages?
cold and dry. water 变成 ice 所以no microbial growth. 只要frozen就可以last forever, with minimal loss of quality. storage time is limited by the chemical changes that still happen. defrost
what are some ways to defrost? what are the advantages and disadvantages? p44
1）放冰箱里解冻防止进入室温，但较久。2）放入room temperature：比较快。直接煮可以，但放太久会有microbial growth，还是可以吃，但是微生物会造成deterioration而变不好吃。3）microwave：比较快但很难控制。为了防止大块的东西外面先熟，可以放冷水（水transfer heat比air快）。记得放在cool temperature
Once a product is thawed can it be frozen again? and then thawed again?
yes. thawed=会有可能microbial growth and loss of quality. more care in defrosting= less quality will be lost
how is fermentation done?
breakdown carbohydrates under anaerobic conditions，由此产生 acid, alcohol, flavor compounds. encourage the growth of certain microorganisms, prevent spoilage
we can control which 3 factors to control fermentation?
pH, Salt content, Temperature
what are some products that use fermentation?
Bread, Beer, Pickles, Wine, Vinegar, Cheese, Tea, Coffee, Sauerkraut, Sausage, Yogurt, Soy sauce
how is fermentation done differently for diff products? p45
add flavor (wine) Remove or alter flavors (soy sauce) Alter chemical characteristics: Sugar to ethanol (beer) Ethanol to acetic acid (vinegar) Sugar to lactic acid (cheese)
how is Irradiation done? what are the diff types? p45
high energy waves to kill microorganisms. (shorter wavelength higher energy) alpha: He nucleus; beta: electrons; gamma: electromagnetic radiation
how is traditional and new irradiation diff?
传统：需要 radioactive element, 安全和 radioactive waste的问题。新的：像 dental or medical x-ray generators。用 high current electron beam to generate the high energy particles，没有东西会变得 radioactive
how does ionizing radiation kill microorganisms? p45
Direct effects: particles里的能量直接interacts molecules in the cell or spore，造成damage。Indirect effects: 形成 reactive species in water 并react with cellular molecules to kill the cell. 大部分杀菌是 indirect effects.
where is irradiation commonly used? what is easy to kill and what is not? why?
inactivate enzymes, kill bacterial cells/spores, kill insects. 用来杀孢子用的能量比杀虫多，dry food里杀虫很有效，因为虫里的水分让他们很好杀。例如dry grain and spices
why is the use of irradiation limited (disadvantages) ? p45
用来杀cell的 ions 会造成food molecules breakdown。Radicals 和lipid react 会造成 off-flavor, 但如果没有水就比较不会。但是还是可以sterile lipid food而不走位，只是如果要用radiation生产 sterile product会很expensive 。表面 pasteurization 还是 practical。
how is irradiation done?
ionizing radiation: high energy particle 穿过 water, 产生出 highly reactive free radicals (and ions), 和 proteins or DNA react。energy被DNA吸收，最后摧毁bacteria/cell。它们只有一个copy of 一个 chromosome，而且没有membrane保护。 damage程度和水量相关
what should be labeled as irradiated?
grain and spices not labeled cuz they are ingredients. things like hot dog, must be labeled
is irradiation safe considering the radioactivity? why or why not? is it nutritious?
safer than 以前用的 chemical treatments。没有 radioactivity。以前常用在medical devices上。和用conventional 方法的食物一样nutritious。
besides food, what other things commonly use irradiation? how is it done? what is the advantages?
medical materials with fluids for injection (syringes, IV bags and IV lines) sterilized after packaging so no contamination (no off flavors). 比起以前用chemical treatments， 现在对运作的人和要使用的人都比较安全
why is irradiation treated as addictive even tho it is a process? why must the product labeled?
FDA 只能要求addictive被label,不能控制一个process然后要求label。可是consumer会想要知道
how is irradiation used on pasteurization?
一个东西消毒后再包装还是有可能感染。irradiation可以穿透包装消毒。所以会 involve pasteurization 去消除 salmonella, E. coli and listeria
what are the problems that irradiation is facing? (disadvantages)
Consumer acceptance, Plants - NIMBY (工厂不要在我家旁边！）High cost to sterilize，Anti nuclear lobby
factors that affect Ca absorption?
vit D needed, P compete
would increased Ca save osteoporosis?
no, cuz the prob is poor absorption
how was goiter prevented?
adding iodine to salt
why are thiamin, niacin, and riboflavin removed from food labeling and cholesterol added?
没有人对那三个有兴趣，比较在乎cholesterol
How few calories should you consume per day without medical supervision?
below 1200kcal/day 需要supervision
If you have been loosing weight for 2 or 3 weeks, your body will become more or less efficient?
BMR low=more efficient
