From the Body Remembers Flashcards
What is the HPA Axis
The hypothalmic pituitary adrenal axis.
What sets the HPA Axis in motion?
The limbic system, responding to extreme trauma/stress/threat, sets the HPA axis in motion, telling the body to prepare for defensive action.
What chemicals are released when the HPA Axis is set in motion, and what is the effect on the body?
Repenephrine and norepenephrine, quickening heartrate and respiration, skin pales as blood flows from the surface to the muscles, and body prepares for quick movement.
How does the limbic system respond when flight and flight are both perceived to be impossible?
The limbic system commands simultaneous heightened arousal of the parasympathetic branch PNS of the autonomic nervous system ANS, and tonic immobility.
What bodily mechanism halts the alarm response, but is insufficient in people with PTSD?
Cortisol secretion.
People with PTSD live in a chronic state of ____ activation.
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) activation, or hyperarousal.
In PTSD sufferers, what is the cause of the distressing, and disabling symptoms of heightened pulse, paled skin, cold sweat, etc.
Repeated recall of autonomic nervous system (ANS) activation, the body’s high alert that occurred during the original trauma.
Under normal circumstances, what is the relationship between the SNS and the PNS?
Balance. Both are always activated, but when one is up, the other is down. SNS is usually aroused by positive / negative stress (exercise, danger) and PNS aroused by rest, sexual pleasure, etc.
What would indicate the successful processing of trauma?
Can recall and describe the event; can make meaning of it; have appropriate emotional reactions; and can perceive it as clearly in the past
Generally speaking, people with PTS/PTSD remember trauma in two different ways. Describe them and note what they both have in common:
- Clear, film-like memory of the trauma, with either powerful and innappropriate emotions or numbness and deadening.
- Vague, or lack of memory of trauma accompanied by physiological sensations that don’t make sense.
(In common): both experience danger as present, not in the past.
What is the difference in malleability between different brain systems?
More complex systems are more malleable. The cerebral cortex is very malleable and influenceable, while the brain stem is less so.
Define resilience
Being able to swing with the punches dished out by life
Why is healthy attachment good for the brain?
In babies, healthy attachment relationships with caregivers stimulates key brain development, helping to develop resilience
What are synapses?
The electrical or chemical (neurotransmitter) link between neurons (nerve cells)
What are some examples of basic synapse strings and complex synapse networks?
Basic string: a feeling, a blink, a basic action
Complex: walking, speaking with someone
What are two chemical synapses and what systems do they come from?
Epinephrine: Adrenal
Nor-epinephrine: the other sympathetic nerves
What does a buildup of norepinephrine lead to?
Fight or flight
What type of nerves are Brain -> Body, sending messages about behaviours?
Efferent nerves
What type of nerves are Body -> Brain, sending messages about body position?
Afferent nerves
What is the lower brain, and what functions is it implicated in?
The brain stem: breathing, heartbeat, etc.
What are some of the main parts of the mid-brain and what fuctions?
Limbic system, hypocampus, amydala, ANS. Instincts, reflexes related to safety, danger, sex, food, etc.
What is the upper, most advanced part of the brain?
Cerebral cortex
Describe some differences between the functions and development of the amygdala and the hippocampus
Amygdala: responsible for processing emotional reactions and sending that to the cortex. Functional at birth
Hippocampus: Makes sense, provides context, sequencing on a timeline. Develops from 1-3 years
What is unique about the hypocampus regions of PTSD survivors?
It is smaller, although not clear if it got smaller from PTSD, or if PTSD resulted because HC was already smaller
Why does extreme stress have the potential to distort memory and make processing experience difficult?
Stress hormones, like cortisol, may suppress the function of the hippocampus
Explain how bi-lateral brain function may contribute to the “speechless terror” of trauma?
The amygdala is associated with the right hemisphere, while the hippocampus is linked with the left hemisphere. The left hemisphere also contains Broca’s Area, believed to be responsible for speech. Both Broca’s Area and the hippocampus are suppressed in trauma.
Explain how a mother helps a child build resilience (in the context of amygdala and hippocampal function)
The early attachment bond with baby are right brain focused, where the mother helps baby regulate in response to stimuli, by soothing, regulating, and calming the baby who is being newly and overly stimulated. Later, the mother helps a toddler by setting rational limits, socializing, using language to make sense of experience.
What early life conditions are PTSD risk factors, and why might this be (in relation to brain function)?
Early trauma and lack of a healthy attachment bond. Both mean that child will be less able to self-regulate, because there is reduced hippocampal activity, either from lack of attachment bond stimulation, or because it was suppressed by trauma.
What is the key brain structure to making sense of and moving on from trauma?
Hippocampus
Can anything be done about lack of a healthy attachment bond?
Yes. Healthy attachment can come later, in the form of a friend, counsellor, etc.
What are the three main functions of memory?
Encoding, storage, retrieval
What are two main types of memory, and what are the differences (esp in relation to brain function)
Explicit (declarative): connected with hippocampal region and involves concepts, language, narrative sequencing, steps, etc.
Implicit (Procedural or non-declarative): Connected with amygdala, Unconscious, automatic, emotions, sensations, bodily impulses
What type of memory functions better under stress and why?
Implicit (Procedural or non-declarative) functions better under stress than Explicit (declarative) because the functions of the amygdala are not suppressed under stress
What are the 4 main components of classical conditioning and the classic example?
Stimulus (S), Response (R), Conditioned Stimulus (CS), Conditioned Response (CR). Pavlov’s dog drooled (R) when presented with food (S). Pavlov paired food with bell (CS). Now when bell rings (CS), even in the absence of food, the drooling still happens (CR).
Describe how classical conditioning might play out in trauma triggering, and how a secondary stimulus/response might come about?
A trauma (S) provokes intense fear (R). That trauma is paired with something like a color or smell (CS) that now also provokes fear (CS). Running into that color or smell (CS) might be then paired with the street on which it happened (SCS) and provoke fear (SCR). This could eventually generalize to “all streets” leading to agoraphobia for example.
Describe how Skinner’s operant conditioning might play a role in development of PTS symptoms in an example of public speaking
Someone punished for assertive speaking as a child, might extinguish that behaviour. Then, later in life, faced with a public speaking challenge, may react with panic, dry throat, etc.
What is relationship between conditioning and stress?
Conditioning’s ability to create or extinguish behaviour is much more powerful under stressful conditions.
Give some examples of how state-dependent recall plays a role in triggering PTS symptoms?
Heart racing from exercise or sex, assuming a similar posture to when the trauma occurred.
What are the two main branches of the human nervous system?
Central and peripheral
What are 3 divisions of the peripheral nervous system?
Autonomic, Somatic, and Sensory
What are the two branches of the sensory nervous system?
Interoceptive (vestibular, proprioception) and Exteroceptive (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin)
What is the difference in function between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems?
Somatic is related to voluntary control, while autonomic is largely involuntary.
What are the two branches of the autonomic nervous sytem?
Sympathetic (SNS) and Parasympathetic (PNS)
Describe the pathway between the senses and memory?
Stimulation of Intero (viscera, muscles, connective tissue) and Extero (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin) ceptive nerves, with signals travelling via synapses to the thalamus, then to the cortex where they are either encoded to memory or forgotten.
What are the two parts of interoceptive sense, and their functions?
Vestibular (balance) and Proprioception (body in space, kinesthetic state, internal state of the body)
Describe an example of the kinasthetic sense?
Touch finger to nose, knowing angle of arm, where finger is, where nose is in relation to it.
What type of memory is associated with the kinesthetic sense?
Implicit (procedural). Motor tasks are typically unconscious, but we can develop awareness of them.
What would be a way to challenge someones implicit memory of a motor task?
Have someone write with the wrong hand - writing in the unfamiliar way will mean they have to think about what they are doing.
Teach a child how to tie their shoe. What seems so simple and natural for you, might be a frustrating experience of figuring out, thinking about complex movements.
What is affect?
The biology of emotions and internal sense
What do we sense internally?
Temperature, breath, heartbeat, tension, pleasure, pain, relaxation
Summarize Damasio’s Somatic Markers and provide an example
Internal sensory input -> sensations/emotions -> stimuli -> become associated (CC) -> encoded in implicit memory. Food poisoning leading to nausea at certain foods.
Where is the vestibular sense located, and what is its function?
Fluid of the inner ear. It tells us “I am upright,” let’s us know of changes. If it is disturbed, dizziness, vertigo, and motion sickness result.
What is a first impression, from a memory encoding perspective?
Intero and exteroception provides sensory information, and this is encoded as sensations (not words). Recalling a song, or smelling something can bring back a somatic memory.
What is the problematic memory encoding process in trauma?
The trauma is encoded in implicit and explicit memory, however, due to suppression of the hippocampus, some explicit info may be missing, and the victim cannot make sense of just the somatic memory.
State 3 goals of trauma therapy, as they relate to somatic memory
- Feel sensations
- Identify and describe them
- Possibly (but not necessarily) clarify meaning related to trauma
What is a flashback, and what does it feel like?
Intense recall of implicit memory with or without explicit details. It feels real, like it’s presently happening.
What kind of experiences can be triggering?
Both intero and extero ceptive. SIghts, sounds, body position, heart rate, etc.
What brain system could be called the “Survival Center”
The Limbic System
What part of the limbic system prepares the body for fight or flight?
The hypothalamus activates the SNS branch of the ANS, provoking it into a state of heightened arousal.
What are noticeable signs of SNS activation, and what is their function in the context of trauma or flashback?
Faster respiration, quicker pulse, higher blood pressure, dilated pupils, pale skin, increased sweating, cold possibly clammy skin, digestion decreases. This is to prepare for quick movement, and possible fight or flight reflex.
When is the SNS branch activated?
During positive and negative stress states, including sexual climax, rage, desperation, terror, anxiety, panic, trauma
When is the PNS branch activated?
In states of rest, relaxation, sexual arousal, happiness, anger, grief, sadness
What are noticeable signs of PNS activation, and what is their function in the context of trauma, flashback?
Slower, deeper respiration, slower heartrate, decreased blood pressure, pupils constrict, flushed skin color, skin dry and warm to touch, digestion increases. The PNS can activate concurrently with, and mask, SNS activation, leading to tonic immobility, a freezing reflex.
Provide an example of how the balance between PNS and SNS might play out?
Sleeping, PNS is active. Wake up, thinking you’re an hour late, SNS shoots up. Racing to work you realize the clocks have changed, the PNS rises and SNS decreases. But getting to work, there is an angry client. PNS is suppressed as SNS rises again.
Describe “tonic immobility” in the context of cat and mouse, and what the evolutionary function might be.
The physiological dilemma of fight, flight or freeze. If a mouse spots a cat, its SNS will activate drastically, enabling it to run and escape. But if it perceives itself as trapped, its body will go limp, like a rag doll. While the SNS is still highly activated, the PNS is also actived and masks the SNS activity. This is an adaptive function in that a cat may lose interest in dead prey. Alternately, in the case that the attack continues, the analgesic and numbing effect of tonic immobility reduces the suffering for the mouse significantly.
What do reports from people who have been threatened with death, or rape survivors indicate about tonic immobility?
Survivors of great falls, animal mauling, and rape report an altered state where fear and pain is reduced greatly, and the body goes limp (a source of shame and guilt for rape survivors)
What problem exists in the justice system with respect to rape and tonic immobility?
Rape cases can be thrown out because the victim did not resist. However, this lack of resistance may have been a tonic immobility response to extreme threat and a state where fight or flight was perceived impossible.
Why are there differences in how people respond to threat, for example gender?
Reflexive and instinctive response depends on several factors including instinct, physical resources, psychological resources, and learned behaviour. For example, men may more often respond with fight or flight than women and children because they have greater physical resources and have been conditioned that way.
Is fainting related to tonic immobility?
Unknown, but fainting does appear to be a consequence of an overwhealmed ANS.
How does ANS function help us understand why someone with PTSD can’t handle daily stress like others do, or like they used to?
Chronic ANS arousal means there is less room to swing between SNS and PNS arousal in response to stress. When SNS is constantly aroused, as in the case of PTSD, there is little room left when additional stress is added.
What is the SomNS responsible for?
Voluntary movement via contraction of skeletal muscles.
What are the different functions available to a muscle?
Active function: contract. Passive function: relax.
What are the three types of muscles in the body? What NS branch controls each one?
Skeletal: Voluntary (Conscious), Controlled by SoNS
Smooth (visceral): Involuntary (Unconscious), wrap veins, arteries, intestines, controlled by ANS
Cardiac: Involuntary, Controlled by CNS
What nervous system activity will cause the contraction / relaxation of a skeletal muscle?
Nerve signals (neural impulses) in the SoNS cause contraction, absence of nerve signals in the SONS cause relaxation.
When you reach out to touch your own nose, what are the roles of the SoNS and the kinesthetic sense?
The SoNS commands the movement by contracting certain muscles and leaving others relaxed. The kinesthetic sense ensures accuracy of movement.
What nervous system functions are required to learn and perform a movement?
SoNS nerves cause the movement,
The interoceptive and proprioceptive nerves perceive it, give you a feeling about it, by relaying sensory information from the body to the brain via afferent nerves.
Efferent nerves relay learned actions to muscles to recreate movement in the SoNS and proprioceptive system.
What are the roles of the SoNS and ANS in threat situations?
The ANS directs blood flow away from viscera and skin to muscles, and the SoNS directs muscles to carry out fight, flight, or freeze response.
Can instinctual defensive behaviours be taught?
In some cases yes. For example, premature babies sometimes lack falling reflex, which can be later taught to extend their arms.
Self-defense training reawakens normal fight responses for victims of assault and rape, by building synaptic movement patterns of defense that will repeat spontaneously.
Earthquake and fire drills are another example
How does operant conditioning play a role in defensive behaviours?
Previous success/failure of a behaviour like fight or freeze will increase the chance of it being used in the future. If someone successfully defends themselves in a fight they are more likely to use it again. If not, and he has to resort to tonic immobility, that becomes a more likely response.
How many repetitions are req’d to encode/extinguish a defensive behaviour in a trauma scenario?
None. One instance of a failed defensive behaviour can be instantly encoded via the SoNS and can extinguish it from one’s defensive repetoire.
How might the SoNS be implicated in state-dependent recall?
Assuming a posture. For example, sitting in the same way to remember a thought; a posture assumed in a traumatic situation can invoke panic when assumed later (ie, arm pinned behind back, turning head to look at devastating news, etc.)
Explain how emotion is an interplay between the body and brain?
Each emotion has a discrete pattern of skeletal and visceral muscle contracts, giving the emotion a visible signature to others, and a feeling on the inside of the body. Proprioceptive nerves communicate the feelings of an emotion to the brain to be named and interpreted by the cortex.
Why might “feel” refer to both emotions and sensation?
Perhaps a semantic acknowledgment of the fact that emotions comprise body sensations.
How does Donald Nathanson address the dilemma of feelings, emotions, and affect?
He suggests affect is the biological aspect of emotion, and feeling is the conscious experience of it. Memory is necessary to create an emotion, while affects and feelings can exist without memory of a prior experience.
What are some English phrases that reflect how body is connected with emotions like anger, sadness, disgust, happiness, fear, shame.
Anger - he's pain in the neck Sadness - I'm all choked up Disgust - she makes me sick Happiness - could burst Fear - I have butterflies in my stomach Shame - I can't look you in the eye
What are some commonalities in physical sensations of emotions like anger, sadness, disgust, happiness, fear, shame.
Anger - muscular tension, in jaw and shoulders
Sadness - wet eyes, ‘lump’ in the throat
Disgust - nausea
Happiness - deep breathing, sighing
Fear - heart racing, trembling
Shame - rising heat, particularly in the face
What are some typical behaviours associated with emotions like anger, sadness, disgust, happiness, fear, shame.
Anger - yelling, fighting, gesturing Sadness - crying, Disgust - turning away, gagging, scrunching face Happiness - laughing, smiling, Fear - flight, shaking, Shame - hiding
What are some recognizeable facial and postural expressions associated with emotions like anger, sadness, disgust, happiness, fear, shame.
Anger - clamped jaw, reddened neck
Sadness - flowing tears, reddened eyes
Disgust - wrinkled nose with raised upper lip
Happiness - smile, bright eyes
Fear - wide eyes with lifted brows, trembling, blanching
Shame - blushing, averted gaze
What is the range of a newborn baby’s emotional expression?
Wailing at discomfort, calming down at comfort.
What are four important theoretical models of emotion?
Darwin’s Cross-cultural survey
Silvan Tomkins’s Affect Theory
Joseph LeDoux’s Emotional Brain
Antonio Damasio’s Somatic Marker
What did Charles Darwin’s cross-cultural survey reveal about emotions, and who did he study?
Looking at various cultures including aboriginal, indian, african, native, american, chinese, malayan, and ceylonese, he found that the ranges of emotion and somatic expression of emotion had great commonality across cultures.
What was Tomkin’s affect theory concerned with?
Identifying similarities in emotional expression across generations, and categorizing affect by physical expression including facial characteristics and changes to body posture.
According to LeDoux’s Emotional Brain theory, what is the evolutionary function of emotions?
Survival, by dealing with hostile environments and procreation.
Who did Damasio study in relation to his somatic marker theory, and what were some of his discoveries? Esp related to ‘gut feelings’?
People with brain damage to emotion centers. He found that rational thought requires emotion, that body sensations cue emotional awareness. A rational decision requires a feeling of the consequences, not just the thought of it. Positive and negative sensations, somatic markers, guide decision making.
What is an exercise to explore the somatic basis of emotion?
4 parts. 1) Survey current sensations, breathing, skin temp, heart rate, shoulder position, tension, gut feelings, and body position. 2) Remember an angry moment, what you were angry about, who it was with, what you said / thought, and then repeat the above survey to notice differences. 3) Repeat with a time that was happy, safe, recalling as much sensory info as possible. 4) Repeat with a time that was scary (not worst trauma, but a small amount of fear). To finish, return to memory of happy and safe.
