Framing in the Media

Question 1

1) Define framing:

According to Entman, framing is the way in which an argument or depiction or a person, group or event is packaged, in order to make accessible & encourage a particular interpretation.

Answer 1

1) Define framing:

According to Entman, framing is the way in which an argument or depiction or a person, group or event is packaged, in order to make accessible & encourage a particular interpretation.

Question 2

2) Who uses framing and why?

As powerful actors & institutions, such as politicians, governments & mass media outlets often seek to promote a particular ideology, a le to keep

Answer 2

2) Who uses framing and why?

As powerful actors & institutions, such as politicians, governments & mass media outlets often seek to promote a particular ideology, a le to keep

Question 3

3) What problems arise with the application of framing in media?

Whilst the media should ideally report events objectively & provide a balanced account of all issues, the reality is that media outlets are frequently influenced by political figures/groups to provide a particular framing of reality.

Answer 3

3) What problems arise with the application of framing in media?

Whilst the media should ideally report events objectively & provide a balanced account of all issues, the reality is that media outlets are frequently influenced by political figures/groups to provide a particular framing of reality.

Question 4

4) What other problems have arisen more recently, in relation to media & framing?

In recent decades increased profit expectations for news media (U.S.A) have driven the need/desire to dramatize & entertain reports of events, in order to maximise audience share.

Answer 4

4) What other problems have arisen more recently, in relation to media & framing?

In recent decades increased profit expectations for news media (U.S.A) have driven the need/desire to dramatize & entertain reports of events, in order to maximise audience share.

Question 5

5) According to Chong & Druckman, what are the 2 main types of framing in media discourse?

Equivalency Framing & Emphasis Framing.

Answer 5

5) According to Chong & Druckman, what are the 2 main types of framing in media discourse?

Equivalency Framing & Emphasis Framing.

Question 6

6) What is equivalency framing?

Equivalency frames offer “different, but logically equivalent phrases,” which cause individuals to alter their preferences.

Answer 6

6) What is equivalency framing?

Equivalency frames offer “different, but logically equivalent phrases,” which cause individuals to alter their preferences.

Question 7

7) What is emphasis framing?

Emphasis frames offer “qualitatively different yet potentially relevant considerations” which individuals use to make judgments.

Answer 7

7) What is emphasis framing?

Emphasis frames offer “qualitatively different yet potentially relevant considerations” which individuals use to make judgments.

Question 8

8) What did De Martino et al. (2006) highlight in their study of equivalency framing?

Though the neurobiology is not fully understood, their study showed how common accounts of human rationality (e.g. game theory) are undermined by the fact human choices are highly susceptible to the way information is framed.

Answer 8

8) What did De Martino et al. (2006) highlight in their study of equivalency framing?

Though the neurobiology is not fully understood, their study showed how common accounts of human rationality (e.g. game theory) are undermined by the fact human choices are highly susceptible to the way information is framed.

Question 9

9) What connections could be made from the findings of the study?

The framing effect, emotional behaviours & the decision-making procedure.

Answer 9

9) What connections could be made from the findings of the study?

The framing effect, emotional behaviours & the decision-making procedure.

Question 10

10) Describe the study (De Martino et al., 2006).

Participants were told they would receive £50 & subsequently that they had to choose between taking a guaranteed portion or gamble to keep it all.

Gain frame = “keep £20”

Loss frame = “lose £30”

Answer 10

10) Describe the study (De Martino et al., 2006).

Participants were told they would receive £50 & subsequently that they had to choose between taking a guaranteed portion or gamble to keep it all.

Gain frame = “keep £20”

Loss frame = “lose £30”

Question 11

11) What were the results of the study (De Martino et al., 2006)?

Results showed this simple manipulation of the wording significantly influenced the decisions made.

Those subject to the ‘gain frame’ were risk-averse (43% gambled), compared to the risk-seeking ‘loss frame’ participants (61% gambled).

Answer 11

11) What were the results of the study (De Martino et al., 2006)?

Results showed this simple manipulation of the wording significantly influenced the decisions made.

Those subject to the ‘gain frame’ were risk-averse (43% gambled), compared to the risk-seeking ‘loss frame’ participants (61% gambled).

Question 12

12) What further conclusions were drawn from the study (De Martino et al., 2006)?

Results depicted the cognitive effect of the framing bias, where brain activity was measured during the decision making process.

Individuals incorporated a broad range of additional emotional information when making decisions - so some were more rational than others, based on the active areas of the brain.

Ultimately, this demonstrates how in the modern media saturated society emotional responses to information, rather than rational/analytical ones, can lead to humans being easily influenced.

Answer 12

12) What further conclusions were drawn from the study (De Martino et al., 2006)?

Results depicted the cognitive effect of the framing bias, where brain activity was measured during the decision making process.

Individuals incorporated a broad range of additional emotional information when making decisions - so some were more rational than others, based on the active areas of the brain.

Ultimately, this demonstrates how in the modern media saturated society emotional responses to information, rather than rational/analytical ones, can lead to humans being easily influenced.

Question 13

13) What are the two main things that framing theory considers? Define them.

Selection: the choosing of some aspects of a perceived reality.

Salience: making select aspects more noticeable, memorable & meaningful to audiences.

Answer 13

13) What are the two main things that framing theory considers? Define them.

Selection: the choosing of some aspects of a perceived reality.

Salience: making select aspects more noticeable, memorable & meaningful to audiences.

Question 14

14) How does agenda setting relate to the selection of information?

Agenda setting is the process by where some issues gain more media attention over others.

It determines what audiences should think about, firstly, before how they should think about them.

Answer 14

14) How does agenda setting relate to the selection of information?

Agenda setting is the process by where some issues gain more media attention over others.

It determines what audiences should think about, firstly, before how they should think about them.

Question 15

15) What did Funkhouser (1973) find when it comes to media agenda setting?

By comparing media coverage to official statistics, there was little evidence that real-world events consistently drove media coverage.

Answer 15

15) What did Funkhouser (1973) find when it comes to media agenda setting?

By comparing media coverage to official statistics, there was little evidence that real-world events consistently drove media coverage.

Question 16

16) What have other (later) studies found when it comes to agenda setting?

Public opinion does not drive the agenda, but rather the media agenda drives public opinion.

Answer 16

16) What have other (later) studies found when it comes to agenda setting?

Public opinion does not drive the agenda, but rather the media agenda drives public opinion.

Question 17

17) How does the hegemony model also demonstrate how the media agenda cannot be taken as given; appropriate?

The hegemony model posits that ruling elites construct their preferred versions of reality & imbed them in society through ‘cultural workers’.

I.E. journalists act as agents of those in power - politicians, advisors & institutions.

Answer 17

17) How does the hegemony model also demonstrate how the media agenda cannot be taken as given; appropriate?

The hegemony model posits that ruling elites construct their preferred versions of reality & imbed them in society through ‘cultural workers’.

I.E. journalists act as agents of those in power - politicians, advisors & institutions.

Question 18

18) What is the consequence of the hegemony model?

The voices of ruling groups are amplified to produce & renew particular meanings, which become hegemonic.

I.E. framed realities become popular public opinion, as accounts are naturalized so as to appear as common sense, neutral & the default position.

Answer 18

18) What is the consequence of the hegemony model?

The voices of ruling groups are amplified to produce & renew particular meanings, which become hegemonic.

I.E. framed realities become popular public opinion, as accounts are naturalized so as to appear as common sense, neutral & the default position.

Question 19

19) What are the limitations of the hegemony model?

Counter themes may run contrary to powerful, dominant frames & gain traction if they better explain events.

Answer 19

19) What are the limitations of the hegemony model?

Counter themes may run contrary to powerful, dominant frames & gain traction if they better explain events.

Question 20

20) Describe the main example of dominant, universally accepted frames that were free from competition.

War on Terror Frame

Adopted in the U.S after 9/11, gained acceptance since government officials commonly dictate foreign policy framing in the U.S.A - so the Whitehouse could freely frame the agenda.

Entman also notes how a frame’s capacity to influence rests on its cultural relevance. The War on Terror frame appealed to shared knowledge, experience & image of U.S. culture.

Answer 20

20) Describe the main example of dominant, universally accepted frames that were free from competition.

War on Terror Frame

Adopted in the U.S after 9/11, gained acceptance since government officials commonly dictate foreign policy framing in the U.S.A - so the Whitehouse could freely frame the agenda.

Entman also notes how a frame’s capacity to influence rests on its cultural relevance. The War on Terror frame appealed to shared knowledge, experience & image of U.S. culture.

Question 21

21) What statistics show that the war on terror frame was effective & culturally relevant?

71% of Americans said they believed the purpose of the war in Afghanistan was to ‘defend freedom & democracy’. 92% supported the war initially, through Bush deploying this theme.

Liberty, as core value, & world trade centre as an iconic centre of NY.

Answer 21

21) What statistics show that the war on terror frame was effective & culturally relevant?

71% of Americans said they believed the purpose of the war in Afghanistan was to ‘defend freedom & democracy’. 92% supported the war initially, through Bush deploying this theme.

Liberty, as core value, & world trade centre as an iconic centre of NY.

Question 22

22) How do critical events reframe policy debates?
Numerous studies have documented how the media plotline in the aftermath of the 2001 attacks matched Bush’s compelling frame: a virtuous, innocent & unsuspecting country was savagely preyed upon by evil terrorists who hated it for the freedoms its people enjoyed.
McCombs and Shaw concluded “that media have exerted a considerable impact on voters’ judgments of what they considered the major issue of the campaign”.

Answer 22

22) How do critical events reframe policy debates?
Numerous studies have documented how the media plotline in the aftermath of the 2001 attacks matched Bush’s compelling frame: a virtuous, innocent & unsuspecting country was savagely preyed upon by evil terrorists who hated it for the freedoms its people enjoyed.
McCombs and Shaw concluded “that media have exerted a considerable impact on voters’ judgments of what they considered the major issue of the campaign”.

Question 23

23) Describe how Schnell & Callaghan depict elections after 9/11, demonstrating salience.

Candidates in the elections immediately following 9/11 frequently evoked images of the critical event & framed it so it coincided with their political agenda. Public attitudes towards gun control in the U.S. which, while still divisive, were relatively stable, became more contested through the application of provocative war on terror frames.

I.E. the salience of Islamic terrorism was more prominent in post-9/11 frames.

Answer 23

23) Describe how Schnell & Callaghan depict elections after 9/11, demonstrating salience.

Candidates in the elections immediately following 9/11 frequently evoked images of the critical event & framed it so it coincided with their political agenda. Public attitudes towards gun control in the U.S. which, while still divisive, were relatively stable, became more contested through the application of provocative war on terror frames.

I.E. the salience of Islamic terrorism was more prominent in post-9/11 frames.

Question 24

24) Describe the Schnell & Callaghan study.

Pre-9/11 gun-control frames included the ‘rights frame’ vs. the ‘crime/violence frame’.

Post-9/11 frames were the ‘guns cause terrorism’ frame vs. ‘guns stop terrorism’ frame.

When individuals were subject to these frames, as well as a dual theme frame, the new terrorist frames were far more effective.

The ‘guns stop terrorism’ frame significantly decreased support for gun control laws, whereas the guns cause terrorism frame increased support for gun control - whilst the pre-9/11 frames had no significant effects.

Answer 24

24) Describe the Schnell & Callaghan study.

Pre-9/11 gun-control frames included the ‘rights frame’ vs. the ‘crime/violence frame’.

Post-9/11 frames were the ‘guns cause terrorism’ frame vs. ‘guns stop terrorism’ frame.

When individuals were subject to these frames, as well as a dual theme frame, the new terrorist frames were far more effective.

The ‘guns stop terrorism’ frame significantly decreased support for gun control laws, whereas the guns cause terrorism frame increased support for gun control - whilst the pre-9/11 frames had no significant effects.

Question 25

25) What was the overall conclusions of the Schnell & Callaghan study?

The study was consistent with the decreasing support for gun control measures, post 9/11, seen in ABC news poll, & the increasing number of gun sales in the same period.

Yet, it was not the NRA or skilled policy personnel who influenced the pro-gun shift in the U.S., since it was primarily the news media who made explicit connections between gun control & terrorism.

Answer 25

25) What was the overall conclusions of the Schnell & Callaghan study?

The study was consistent with the decreasing support for gun control measures, post 9/11, seen in ABC news poll, & the increasing number of gun sales in the same period.

Yet, it was not the NRA or skilled policy personnel who influenced the pro-gun shift in the U.S., since it was primarily the news media who made explicit connections between gun control & terrorism.

Question 26

26) What is visual framing?

Where adding or omitting a different element of an image can communicate different messages or suggestions to an audience

Answer 26

26) What is visual framing?

Where adding or omitting a different element of an image can communicate different messages or suggestions to an audience

Question 27

27) How does Mitchell’s ‘Image Theory’ highlight the importance of visual framing?

Suggests that images have now replaced texts as the ruling form of communication in the shift to postmodernity & globalisation, the latter as the rising interconnectedness of persons and information exchange through digital media.

Visual framing techniques have therefore increasingly been applied in political campaigns and media representations of persons, groups & events, to alter and establish meanings.

Answer 27

27) How does Mitchell’s ‘Image Theory’ highlight the importance of visual framing?

Suggests that images have now replaced texts as the ruling form of communication in the shift to postmodernity & globalisation, the latter as the rising interconnectedness of persons and information exchange through digital media.

Visual framing techniques have therefore increasingly been applied in political campaigns and media representations of persons, groups & events, to alter and establish meanings.

Question 28

28) What has research shown in regard to election framing?

Research has convincingly demonstrated that voters attend to candidate images as well as issue positions to extrapolate underlying evaluations that form the basis of voting decisions.

Answer 28

28) What has research shown in regard to election framing?

Research has convincingly demonstrated that voters attend to candidate images as well as issue positions to extrapolate underlying evaluations that form the basis of voting decisions.

Question 29

29) How do image handlers seek to control the visual framing process?

Deploy various strategies to ensure it is virtually impossible for television journalists to avoid the carefully choreographed production of adoring crowds, confetti showers, and message-related backdrops.

Whilst specific policies are subject to disagreement, a candidate’s image may tap into shared ideas of desirable qualities & themes which can form attachments to the electorate, including highly informed citizens.

Answer 29

29) How do image handlers seek to control the visual framing process?

Deploy various strategies to ensure it is virtually impossible for television journalists to avoid the carefully choreographed production of adoring crowds, confetti showers, and message-related backdrops.

Whilst specific policies are subject to disagreement, a candidate’s image may tap into shared ideas of desirable qualities & themes which can form attachments to the electorate, including highly informed citizens.

Question 30

30) What is associational juxtaposition?

The sequential depiction of one thing with another.

E.G. showing a shot of the U.S. flag just before that of a candidate, to communicate patriotism.

Answer 30

30) What is associational juxtaposition?

The sequential depiction of one thing with another.

E.G. showing a shot of the U.S. flag just before that of a candidate, to communicate patriotism.

Question 31

31) How do candidates manipulate the environmental context?

To transfer symbolic meaning to a candidate, they may appear against a backdrop of the great outdoors (associating with environmentally friendly positions), or with children (to show compassion, particularly in times of war & economic hardship, to imply that decision are made with the consideration of the most vulnerable in our society).

Answer 31

31) How do candidates manipulate the environmental context?

To transfer symbolic meaning to a candidate, they may appear against a backdrop of the great outdoors (associating with environmentally friendly positions), or with children (to show compassion, particularly in times of war & economic hardship, to imply that decision are made with the consideration of the most vulnerable in our society).

Question 32

32) How did George Bush seek to receive positive visual associations in an address on economic & homeland security?

Made the address using the backdrop of Mt. Rushmore, hoping to present a likeness with former presidents overlooking the scene

Answer 32

32) How did George Bush seek to receive positive visual associations in an address on economic & homeland security?

Made the address using the backdrop of Mt. Rushmore, hoping to present a likeness with former presidents overlooking the scene

Question 33

33) How are camera manoeuvres utilised to package media content & visually frame political events?

Close up shots are widely understood to create intimacy between the portrayed object/person and the viewer.

Conversely, the long shot creates distance and detachment between the portrayed person and the viewer.

Answer 33

33) How are camera manoeuvres utilised to package media content & visually frame political events?

Close up shots are widely understood to create intimacy between the portrayed object/person and the viewer.

Conversely, the long shot creates distance and detachment between the portrayed person and the viewer.

Question 34

34) How has the close-up shot been used as a means of visually framing elections & foreign events?

Mass demonstrations & campaign rallies see empty spaces ignored by selecting and zooming in on areas that are more densely populated. This gives the viewer the impression that the image is representative of the entire event; busy, popular.

This tactic was similarly applied by U.S. TV media, such as Fox News, during the Saddam Hussein statue collapse in Iraq in 2003, shortly after the Iraq war. To portray the entire Iraqi population as being hostile to their supposedly tyrannical government, close up shots on those taking down the image and the nearby compact crowds depicted mass protest, when in reality it was but a mere few.

This conjugated with the aims of powerful American groups; what Chomsky & others refer to as the military-industrial complex.

Answer 34

34) How has the close-up shot been used as a means of visually framing elections & foreign events?

Mass demonstrations & campaign rallies see empty spaces ignored by selecting and zooming in on areas that are more densely populated. This gives the viewer the impression that the image is representative of the entire event; busy, popular.

This tactic was similarly applied by U.S. TV media, such as Fox News, during the Saddam Hussein statue collapse in Iraq in 2003, shortly after the Iraq war. To portray the entire Iraqi population as being hostile to their supposedly tyrannical government, close up shots on those taking down the image and the nearby compact crowds depicted mass protest, when in reality it was but a mere few.

This conjugated with the aims of powerful American groups; what Chomsky & others refer to as the military-industrial complex.

Question 35

35) How is the long shot applied as a means of visually framing migration & borders?

(Distancing) long shots present migrants as ‘the other’, ensuring the relationship between audience & agent is impersonal - cannot empathise with bodies, only faces.

Migrant identities are backgrounded, as they are presented as anonymous individuals part of an homogenous group - they are the same (generalisation, Van Leeuwen, 2008).

They are also given active agency, as invasive, deviant & uncontrollable men (mostly) who are illegally crossing physical borders.

Answer 35

35) How is the long shot applied as a means of visually framing migration & borders?

(Distancing) long shots present migrants as ‘the other’, ensuring the relationship between audience & agent is impersonal - cannot empathise with bodies, only faces.

Migrant identities are backgrounded, as they are presented as anonymous individuals part of an homogenous group - they are the same (generalisation, Van Leeuwen, 2008).

They are also given active agency, as invasive, deviant & uncontrollable men (mostly) who are illegally crossing physical borders.

Question 36

36) Describe the law & order frame, in relation to visual framing.

Visual framing of the border spectacle ignores the circumstances resulting in migration, as well as the agency of lawmakers who contribute to environmental damage & large-scale conflict that forces migration.

Also, De Genova (2017) notes how, ultimately, lawmakers render the migrants illegal through policy - which is not depicted as an issue when migrants become hyper-visible in media representations of border policing.

Answer 36

36) Describe the law & order frame, in relation to visual framing.

Visual framing of the border spectacle ignores the circumstances resulting in migration, as well as the agency of lawmakers who contribute to environmental damage & large-scale conflict that forces migration.

Also, De Genova (2017) notes how, ultimately, lawmakers render the migrants illegal through policy - which is not depicted as an issue when migrants become hyper-visible in media representations of border policing.

Question 37

37) What has research literature proven with regard to visual framing?

Television’s structural features are an effective means of influencing political evaluations.

More network coverage does not always equal more favourable coverage in the case of elections.

Answer 37

37) What has research literature proven with regard to visual framing?

Television’s structural features are an effective means of influencing political evaluations.

More network coverage does not always equal more favourable coverage in the case of elections.