Frameworks Flashcards
Phonology
The study of patterns and systems of sounds in particular languages
Phoneme vs Syllable
The smallest unit of sound in a language which combine to form a syllable.
How many phonemes are there in the English language
44
Orthography
The relationship between the sounds of spoken English and the way that we write
Split diagraph
Where two vowels combine to form one sound but are separated by a consonant
Prosody
Non-verbal aspects of speech such as tone, intonation and stress which can vary the semantics of an utterance
Elision
The way sounds are omitted in speech
Ellison
The way that sounds are omitted in speech
Aural imagery
Prosody in text; the ability of sound to create representations in people’s minds e.g aliiteration, assonance, sibilance and onomatopoeia
Eye dialect
The term used to describe the non-standard spelling and punctuation used by some writers to give the impression of a regional variety of speech
Parallelisms
Features that help to create rhythm through the successive repetition of similar phrases or sentence structures
Accent
A distinctive way of pronouncing a language, especially one associated with a particular location
Grammar
A whole system and structure of a language usually consisting of syntax and morphology
Noun
A naming word used to describe people, places and objects
Proper noun
Naming words used for specific things such as people or places
Common noun
Nouns used for everyday objects
Abstract noun
Nouns used to describe intangible objects
Concrete noun
Nouns to describe tangible objects
Collective nouns
Nouns used to group objects such as a school of fish
Count (enumerators) and non-count (mass) nouns
Enumerators can be counted while mass nouns cannot be counted
Adjectives (comps and supes)
They are used to describe objects. They can be used to make comparisons with comparatives (sth is more) and superlatives (sth is most)
Attributive and Predictive adjectives
Attributives are pre-modifying while predicatives are post-modifying
Pronouns
Words used instead of nouns to avoid repetition
Personal pronouns
They replace the subject and object of the sentence
Possessive pronouns
They show possession by preceding nouns
Reflexive pronouns
They indicate that the object of the verb is the same as the subject e.g yourself
Demonstrative pronouns
They have a sense of pointing out or highlighting something such as that, those (do not precede a noun)
Indefinite pronouns
They are pronouns that do not refer to specific persons or things such as anything or anyone
Relative pronouns
They act as linking words in a sentence, referring to other nouns e.g who, whom
Interrogative prnouns
They are used to ask questions e.g who, what, how
Conjunctions
They join together different parts of a sentence
Coordinating/subordinating conjunctions
They connect sentences of equal value/they connect a subordinate clase to a main clause
Prepositions
They usually indicate how one thing is related to another or how a noun is related to something else relating to position, direction and tiime.
Determines and the five types
They precede nouns and refer to them directly.
Definite articles refer to specific objects e.g the.
Indefinite articles refer to everyday object e.g a, an.
Possessive determiners show possessions e.g their, her
Demonstrative determiners highlight something (they precede noun) e.g that
Quantifiers show quantity and can be general (many, few) or specific (one or two)
Verbs
Doing words such as do, jump
Main verbs and the two types
Verbs that express the main meaning of a sentence or clause.
They are divided into dynamic and stative verbs. Dynamic verbs are physical actions such as play, jump. Stative vers are mental actions or states such a think. Some verbs can be both
Auxiliary Verbs and the two types
Helping verbs that often go before main verbs.
They are divided into primary and modal verbs. Primary verbs are be, have and do (despite the conjugation) and Modal verbs are only ever used with main verbs such as can, could, shall, should.
Modalities of modal verbs
Epistemic Modality which expresses possibility such as could or might.
Deontic Modality which expresses obligation sush as will and must
Active vs Passive Voice
Active voice is when the object performing an action is emphasized while passive voice is when the action is emphasized
Adverbs
They give information about verbs or how verbs are done.
Transitive vs Intransitive verb phrases
A verb phrase that has an object vs one that does not
Finite verbs
Verbs that can occur alone in a sentence, conjugated or not such as jumps, plays etc
Infinite verbs and the three types
Verbs that are used as nouns, adverbs and adjectives as they do not talk about the action being performed. These include; gerunds (-ing words), infinitives and participles (words that look like verbs but act as adjectives eg sleeping dogs, cooked food)
The six types of adverbs
Adverb of manner: how an action is done eg quickly
Adverb of place: where an action takes place e.g here
Adverb of time: when an action is done e.g tomorrow
Adverb of duration: how long an actonn takes place e.g forever
Adverb of degree: to what extent an action is done e.g completely
Adverb of frequency: how often an action is done e.g sometimes
Complement
A group of words that give more information about the subject
Phrase
A group of words which do not contain a main verb
Clause
A group of words that do contain a main verb
Noun phrase
A phrase with a noun as a headword
Headword
The main focus of a phrase or clase that is essential to the core meaning
Verb phrase
A phrase with a verb as the headword
Pre-modifier
A word that goes before the head noun to either add detail or clarify some aspect of it
Adverbial phrase
A phrase with an adverb as the headword
Prepositional phrase
A phrase with a preposition as the headword
Infinitive phrase
A phrase with an infinitive as the headword
Subject
The doer of an action in a sentence
Object
The receiver of an action in a sentence
Minor sentence
A sentence with three words or less, often missing a main verb or subject
Compound sentence
A sentence containing two main clauses connected by a coordinating conjuction
Complex sentence
A sentence containing at least one main clause and one subordinate clause connected by a subordinating clause
Four moods of a sentence
A declarative makes a statement
An Imperative gives a command
An interrogative asks a question
An exclamative expresses surprise or shock
Main clause
A clause that can form a complete sentence standing alone
Subordinating clause
A clause, introduced by a conjunction that forms part of and is dependent on the main clause
Morphology
The study of the structure of words
Morpheme
The smallest unit of a word that expresses meaning or served as a grammatical function
Root word
The base form of a word without affixation
Affix
Morpheme added to the beginning (prefix) or end (suffix) of a word. The process is called affixation
Free morpheme
A Morpheme that can stand alone as a word
Bound morpheme
A Morpheme that cannot stand alone as a word, usually affixes
Inflectional affix
Serves a grammatical purpose such as changing the tense e.g jump to jumped
Derivational affix
Creates a new word e.g thought to thoughtless
Shared knowledge
The information, beliefs, understandings that are commonly held by a group of individuals
Implication or implied meaning or implicature
Extra layers of meaning that is being implied without it being said out loud
Inference
A conclusion reached based on the basis of evidence and reasoning
Schema
Packing of information gained through experience that help interpreting information quickly
What are Grice’s maxims?
They describe the rules followed by people in a conversation. They include: quality (whether or not the truth is being told), quantity (whether enough or too much information is being told), relevance (staying relevant to the topic) and manner (being clear, avoiding ambiguity)
Breaking Grice’s maxims is referred to as
Violating or flouting them, as opposed to adhering to them.
Violating them is done surreptitiously so the others are unaware that a maxim has been broken
Flouting them is more common and more acceptable
What is our face and who created the theory of face?
Our face is the image that we present to others (Goffman)
What is a face-threatening act?
Rejecting the face that someone presents to us, e.g accusing them of insincerity or turning back on them
Facework
Maintaining the status of participants
Who developed the Politeness Theory?
Brown and Levinson
Types of face and types of politeness
Positive face; their self-esteem, need to feel liked and appreciated by others. This could include taking people feel comfortable like by referring to each other by their first name
Positive politeness; appeals to the negative face by making them feel good about themselves
Negative face; freedom of speech; desire to protect their personal rights
Negative politeness: appeals to a negative gave by making them feel like they are not being imposed on or taken advantage of
Saving face
A strategy to avoid humiliation or embarrassment by maintaining dignity and saving someone’s reputation by concealing actions that may be damaging to our self-image
Types of face-threatening acts
Verbal (using words or language)
Paraverbal (using tone or inflexion)
Non-verbal (facial expressions or body language)
You can have positive or negative face-threatening acts
Politeness strategies
Bald-on record: does not to reduce a fact-threatening act due to a sense of urgency by getting straight to the point without any additional language to soften the message e.g Watch out!
Positive politeness: reduces threat to listener’s positive face by finding common ground, juxtaposing critism with compliments, telling jokes and using statements of friendship such as names
Negative politeness: avoiding imposition on the listener to avoid feelings of awkwardness and embarrassment bye being indirect and hedging, minimizing the opposition or being apologetic
Off-record: the speakers’ intentions are implied and the listener has to interpret them, relying heavily on pragmatics. Here, the speaker could be seen as kind for not imposing and the listener kind for understanding
Who proposed and what is the Politeness principle?
Robin Lakoff; governs conversational interaction by not imposing, giving options and making the receiver feel good
Graphology
The study of the system of symbols which communicates langauge in written form through letters or symbols (including punctuation)
Grapheme
The smallest unit of written communication which could a better or symbol
Ascender vs descender
An ascender extends upwards from the base line while a descender extends downwards
Leading
The amount of vertical space between the lines while typing which can affect whether a text is dense (dense leading) or spaced out (loose leading)
Serif vs sans serif font
Serif has small strokes on the ends of the letters while sans serif does not
Typeface vs typography
Typeface (or font) are the visual designs that give characters their distinct style while typography is the art of arranging type to make the text legible and appealing
Glyph
A different form of a grapheme or a symbol that is used to represent a word
Allographs
Different representations of the same grapheme
Symbolic vs iconic signs
Symbolic: the relationship between signifier and signified is purely conventional and culturally specific.
Iconic: signifier resembles signified, although it is often simplified to provide a basic reference for the reader
Lexis
The vocabulary system of a language
Semantics
The literal and implied meaning of a word or text
Denotation
The face value or literal meaning of a word
Connotation
The extra shades of meaning that are attached to or associated with a word beyond face value and often dependent on context. There can be positive, negative or neutral connotations and they can be subjective.
Emotive language/Loaded terms
Language with strong connotations which evoke emotions
Hyperbole
Exaggerated statements or claims
Collocations
A predictable combination of words
Idiom
A phrase or expressions that cannot be understood literally
Euphenisms vs dysphenism
The use of mild language to soften harsh langauge and the use of harsh language instead of mild language
Synonyms vs Antonyms
Synonyms: words that have the same or similar meanings
Antonyms: words that opposite meanings
Homophones vs homonyms
Homophones are words that sound the same but have a different meaning or spelling
Homonyms are words that are spelled the same but have a different meaning or pronounciation
Types of Antonyms
Complementary antonyms: mutually exclusive pairs of words
Gradable antonyms: pairs of adjectives that can be qualified by adverbs such as very for friendly/unfriendly
Relational antonyms: one pair of words that refer to a relationship from different parts such as teacher and student
Hypernyms vs hyponyms
Hypernyms: the umberella words for smaller terms e.g vehicle
Hyponyms: the smaller terms under the umbrella e.g car, van
Lexical cohesion
How a text and its idea are held together through different kinds of word association between vocabulary and lexical terms in a text which can be achieved by repetition, antonymy and synonymy
Figurative language
Used to convey meaning in a way that differs from its literal meaning
Amelioration vs pejoration
Ameloriation: improved meaning
Pejoration: worsened meaning
Narrowing vs broadening
Narrowing is when the meaning of a words becomes specialised over time while broadening is when a word becomes less specialised
Political correctness
When language is changed to minimise offence
Discourse
The study of the overall structure of written text and spoken text
Coherence vs cohesion
Coherence refers to how a piece if put together on the whole, i.e if it makes sense by removing irrelevant material.
Cohesion is if the text is grammatically correct using collocation, connectives and references.
Types of references
Anaphoric: referring to the past e.g using someone’s name then their pronouns
Cataphoric: referring to the present e.g using someone’s pronouns then their name
Deixis
The contextual information need to fully understand a word or a phrase which can be a person, place, time or discourse
Functions of spoken language
Referential: to provide information
Expressive: to express a speaker’s feelings
Transactional: main emphasis is getting things done
Interactional: the social relationship BTW ppts
Phatic talk: small talk
Turn taking
When we take turns while speaking
Adjacency pairs
A two-part structure which occurs in conversation
Field
The use of specialist or non-specialist language through jargon or subject-specific lexis (piece of langauge which is unique to group and cannot be understood by others outside the field), lexical or semantic field.
Tenor
The relationship between ppts in a discourse e.g whether or not there is friendly rapport
Mode
The channel of communication such as speech, written or multimodal
Register
The level of formality in a text
Taboo vs vulgarism
Taboo: swear words or language that is considered to be inappropriate and impolite
Vulgar: falls short of taboo, coarse but still impolite
Slang
The many different uses of a language which may not be considered standard usually a specific phrase or word that is used by a specific group
Colloquial language
Informal language which generally is standard
Ephemeral speech
One that disappears or that is not permanent
Synchronous vs Asynchronous
Synchronous: scheduled, real-time interactions
Asynchronous: both do not need be present
Initialisms vs acronyms
Abbreviations which are either said by each letter or referred to as a word
Backchannelling
Behaviour refers to noise the listener makes to respond to what the speaker is saying such as hmm
Fillers
Words or phrases used to fill in times to show that the person speaking wants to hold the floor
Discourse markers
Indicate a change of topic such as well, anyway
Elision vs elipsis
Elision: the omission of a sounds in speech or writing
Elipsis: the Omission of words in speech or writing
Self-corrections
The speaker attempts to repair an utterance
Overlapping speech
Talking over one another
Interruptions
Speaking over another person to gain the floor
Paralinguistic features
Use of gestures and facial expressions
Hedging
Use of tentative or vague language to soften speech by making claims sound less absolute
Types of textspeak
Phonetic spelling (luv)
Shortening (dropping vowels)
Letter homophones (using letters for words)
Blending (kinda)
Clipping (net for Internet )
Skip connector
Used to refer back to a former topic
False start
An attempt to start a sentence
Mean Length Utterance
How much a person talks compared to someone else, number of words minus fillers divided by utterances
