FQ4: How does the acquisition of skill affect performance? Flashcards
Stages of skill acquisition (cognitive)
- learning stage
- performs slow, uncoordinated movements, making large errors while gaining an understanding of the skill
- characterised by mental processes + thinking about the skill (body position, which muscles they are contracting, what movement should look like)
- lots of frequent feedback + demos e.g. use of videos
- frequent, short periods of exposure = best for development (distributed part practice)
- feedback = external + KOP e.g. a coach giving verbal feedback after a basketball lay-up to correct technique for arm extension
Stages of skill acquisition (associative)
- practice stage
- understands how to do the skill, performs it with increased speed, still makes a few errors, but can recognise + correct some errors
- progressed from thinking about what they are doing to how they do it
- movement = more fluid + smooth
- can adjust technique + increase complexity of context e.g. kicking a moving ball
- practice: whole + normally massed = beneficial
- feedback = external, delayed + KOP e.g. coach + athlete watching video + critiquing technique of backswing in a forehand shot
Stages of skill acquisition (autonomous)
- automatic stage (mastery stage)
- performs skill automatically with fluency + very few
errors (consistent skilful performance) → can focus on other aspects of performing e.g. who to pass to - characteristic include: kinaesthetic sense, good anticipation, consistent performance, sound technique
- focuses on execution of skill under pressure, tactics + strategies
- practice: training that mirrors comp with pressures + decisions
- feedback = internal, concurrent + KOR e.g. tennis player ‘feeling’ extension of arm was not optimal + modifying future performances
Characteristics of the learner (personality)
- some individuals possess certain personality traits → more likely to learn motor skills quickly
- more likely to attempt new skills, strive to achieve potential, more receptive to instruction + feedback
- help in the acquisition of skill = determination, enthusiasm, dedication, positive attitude, cooperation, patience, willingness, motivation, concentration
E.g. good work ethic + punctuality = develop skill faster Personality with frequently negative thoughts about skill development + personal ability diminishes ability to acquire skills
Characteristic of the learner (heredity)
- refers to inherited genetic characteristics which are unmodifiable e.g. gender, muscle type, somatotype
- can provide skill learning benefits, where genetic features are significant in the learning process
- Someone who is tall + lean may be more suited to activities where height is an advantage to learn a new skill e.g. reach advantage in b-ball when learning a layup
→ increase confidence = speed up rate of learning - gender (hormones), muscle type (fast/slow twitch), somatotype (Endomorphs = carry more weight e.g. rugby, mesomorphs = muscular + low body fat e.g. AFL, ectomorpohs = skinny e.g. high jump)
Characteristic of the learner (confidence)
- refers to attitude + belief a person has in their ability
- high self-confidence = more likely to keep trying in early stages of learning new skills e.g. dribbling = progress to associative stage more quickly
- failures may destroy confidence, successful skill execution = increase confidence = learn new skills faster
- positive achievement enhances confidence, nurtures self-image + provides foundation for future skill building
- overconfidence leads to poor skill acquisition (belief = better than they are, never perfected + never moving into mastery autonomous stage of skill acquisition
e. g. beginner athlete taught difficult skill e.g. javelin without positive feedback = reduced confidence due to large no. of errors typical in early stages of complex skill learning
Characteristic of the learner (prior experience)
- is the transfer of skills from one context to another allowing the athlete to learn new similar skills faster
- if participated in activity that involves similar qualities = accelerates learning process, learn new skill more effectively
e.g. tennis player learning volleyball serve = tennis serve = similar → motion accelerated in learning progression due to some basic movement elements already learned - influence rate of skill acquisition e.g. netballer begins b-ball = progress more quickly with passing + catching
→ allows them to move quickly through cognitive stage
to associative stage, as they may make only small errors with passing + catching accuracy
E.g. developed hand/eye coordination through hockey, = make it easier to learn sports such as cricket or golf - positive transfer (some skills occur in other sports) = advantage, negative transfer (more difficult e.g. netball standing still with ball + b-ball dribbling with ball)
Characteristic of the learner (ability)
- how well an athlete learns skills; ease of performing movements; competency
- involves way in which an individual can learn, process + implement new skills (incorporates sense acuity, perception, reaction time + intelligence)
- greater ability learn + process new skills faster than lower ability - reach higher levels of skill acquisition faster + for a wide variety of skills
- can come down to:
→ Kinaesthetic sense (awareness)
→ Multi-limb coordination - (capacity to structure movements = fluent)
→ Perceptive sense - (capacity to receive + interpret info effectively)
The learning environment
- nature of the skill (open + closed)
Open skill
- occurs in an environment (weather, opposition, surface) that is unpredictable + frequently changing; totally uncontrollable e.g. kicking a goal in AFL
Closed skill
- performed in the same conditions every time; circumstances are always the same + constant e.g. weight lifting, free throw in basketball
→ Open skills take longer to learn than close skills
The learning environment
- nature of the skill (fine + gross)
Gross skill
- requires large muscles groups (legs, back, chest) e.g. running
Fine skill
- involves small or isolated muscles groups (wrist flexors, bicep) e.g. shooting
→ Fine skills are easier to learn than gross skills
The learning environment
- nature of the skill (discrete + continuous + serial)
Discrete
- has a distinct beginning + end that can be identified e.g. shot put, gymnastics flip
Continuous
- repeats a specific movement over + over again e.g. running, swimming
Serial
- combines a no. of separate smaller skills to perform the larger more complex skill e.g. layup in basketball (dribbling, catching, jumping, shooting)
→ Serial skills = harder to learn than discrete skills
→ discrete skills often harder than continuous skills because continuous skills are repeated all the time
The learning environment
- nature of the skill (self-paced + externally paced)
Self-paced
- movements where the performer determines the timing and speed of the execution e.g. tennis serve
Externally paced
- movement has its timing + speed determined by external factors such as opposing players or music e.g. batting in baseball, rhythmic gymnastics
→ Externally paced skills = harder to learn than self-paced
The learning environment
- performance elements e.g. decision making
- need to be taught decision-making skills in order to understand roles + responsibilities in game situations
- productive DM best achieved through observation, questioning (what would you do if opponent moved here?), part-whole approach, variation (change defence alignment) + creativity
→ helps to increase successful + quick decisions - As skill increases, they also increase ability to make more diverse + creative decisions in increasingly complex game situations e.g. knowing when to shift from man on man defence based on possession in a game
The learning environment
- performance elements e.g. strategic + tactical development
- ensure athletes can not only implement set plays +
rehearsed routines, but can also adapt + take advantages of different game situations as they arise - built on principles of technical efficiency (good for success under pressure + decisions), understanding the game (success in execution + selecting correct ones) + good execution (timing, smooth)
- SD requires athletes to reflect on past performance + plan new approaches for improving in future events
-TD requires athletes to ‘think on their feet’ + play out the scenario in front of them to the best of their ability.
Practice method (massed + distributed)
Massed
- continuous practice session, with rest intervals being shorter than practice intervals
- Skilled + motivated athletes
- Suits skills that are exciting or frequently used e.g. uneven bar transitions, passing
Distributed
- broken practice session with intervals of rest or alternative activities being longer than practice intervals
- Works best when athlete lacks interest, task = difficult, motivation = low, task causes fatigue, excessive work causes discomfort or boring e.g. heading a soccer ball
- Good: difficult skills that need to be broken up or when lots of feedback necessary
Practice method (whole + part)
Whole
- athlete practices the complete skill in its entirety
- Often used for discrete + continuous skills e.g. swimming or running
Part
- when skill is broken down into its smaller parts + each part is practised in isolation before being joined together
- Often used for teaching serial skills that have smaller skills that make up the larger skill e.g. basketball layup
Feedback (internal + external)
- provides direction, goals + helps athlete to adjust performance + skill execution as they progress through stages of skill acquisition
Internal - from the performer or how movement felt during execution,
- info received through body’s proprioceptive mechanisms (proprioception)
- embodies feelings + sensory info e.g. soccer player feeling that they didn’t connect with the ball correctly
External - comes from outside the body (external sources) + includes sounds, videos or a coach e.g. coach tells netball player how to improve their defense on opponent
Feedback (concurrent + delayed)
Concurrent
- received during execution of skill simultaneously with the skill execution e.g. a coach stopping a golfer mid-swing to correct their grip on the handle
Delayed
- received after skill is completed e.g. video analysis of a baseball pitchers performance
Feedback (knowledge of results + knowledge of performance)
Knowledge of results
- info about the outcome of a movement e.g. distance covered in long jump, scoring a goal, hitting a six
Knowledge of performance
- info provided about process of movement normally provided externally after its completion e.g. coach giving technical advice on tennis serve, telling player to drop their shoulder later
Analyse how different types of feedback affect a learner’s progress through the stages of skill acquisition.
- External + delayed feedback at cognitive stage of learning to dribble in basketball = help understand nature of skill + technique.
→ coach able to observe skill being performed, identify key errors, + later provide points to improve technique - cognitive stage = gaining feedback from KOR = help motivate athlete to keep learning despite lots of errors e.g. reducing time to complete a dribbling drill
→ help develop understanding of technique + body movements required to dribble with fewer errors - help move more quickly to associative stage - If relying on internal + concurrent feedback in cognitive stage, may not be able to make corrections, resulting in ongoing errors
- To progress from associative to autonomous stage = should use concurrent + internal feedback when dribbling → allow focus on feel of moment + start to self-correct errors.
- should continue to receive external + delayed feedback from coach, to refine skills + improve their KOP so they become quicker + more efficient
- If only has concurrent + internal feedback, can remain in associative stage for longer due to ongoing errors
- In autonomous stage, technique is more precise, relying more on internal feedback.
- However, delayed external feedback e.g. video analysis, = very useful to identify possible areas for improving speed + agility when dribbling in a game situation
Assessment of skill + performance
- Characteristics of skilled performers e.g. kinaesthetic sense
- important for monitoring progress + providing guidance for future training
- accurate + well-established techniques to ensure true reflection of performer achievement
Kinaesthetic sense - awareness of space, body + muscle positioning while performing a skill, during performance (proprioception)
- can feel the movt and even correct/modify movt’s mid performance/execution e.g. b-baller can adjust shot in mid-air depending on defender’s actions
- develops as a direct result of practice as it develops “muscle memory” which is based on proprioception
E.g. cricket player feels the hist of the ball was smooth - elite = feel for their movt + alert to movt error compared to inexperienced performers who make mistakes as ‘muscle memory’ = less developed
- Evaluate appraisal = has limitations as it relies on opinion of athlete + what they are feeling = more subjective
Assessment of skill + performance
- Characteristics of skilled performers e.g. anticipation
- capacity to accurately predict + read game or movement to an opponent + then act accordingly
- skilled = predict what may happen in specific situation = added time to respond
→ elite may be able to read opposition’s tactics enabling them to anticipate externally paced skills - comes by learning to read opponent’s body positioning + being familiar with their preference of style of shot - separates elite from less skilled as difficult to develop + often a skills that significantly impacts game’s result
E.g. tennis player anticipates backhand down the line after reading body positioning of opponent - evaluate appraisal = footballers skill may be appraised by how well they anticipate an externally paced pass + run onto it within a vacant space without losing momentum
Assessment of skill + performance
- Characteristics of skilled performers e.g. consistency
- refers to how skilled athletes executing/performing skills successfully on a regular basis despite being under pressure or in a different/game environment
- developed by preparation, planning + commitment to routines/exposure to situations where it is needed
E.g. basketball and tennis, where a skilled performer continually gets shot in or hits shot over net + near lines - evaluate appraisal = elite’s consistency can be appraised through stats relating to performance e.g. pro cricketer = consistently his ball in middle of bat than an amateur
→ high level = highlighted by commentators when
describing a talented performer = effective method of appraisal as it is objective + reliable
Assessment of skill + performance
- Characteristics of skilled performers e.g. technique
- refers to the technical aspects of skill execution; the result is efficient + consistent movement
- good technique = saves energy, produces better + more consistent results, holds up better under pressure, less chance of injury, + large determinant of elite success
→ Elite = superior technical execution of skill is smooth, consistent + efficient, amateur = ineffective technique generating less power, speed + causing rapid fatigue
E.g. elite swimmer = more streamlined + generate more power with minimal strokes (less energy) = recorded better times, especially competing over longer distances
Assessment of skill + performance
- Objective performance measures
- used to identify improvement, + enable comparisons
b/w standards or performers
Objective - independent of observer; done using something other than the person observing
- Involves quantitative data that determine + assess performance e.g. 20 pts in game, time/speed, distance
- cannot be argued with as show facts → allow for truthful measure of athletic performance
- can include: stopwatch, tape measures or no. of goals; increase through: time, checklists or established criteria
- good if consistent
- not valid in all sports e.g. gymnastics = judge opinion
- used by coaches for reliability + validity, reliance on accuracy + consistency of measuring tools
Assessment of skill + performance
- Subjective performance measures
Subjective
- dependent on observer + based on opinions, feelings, + general impressions e.g. coach saying you played well
- sports: surfing, dancing, diving, gymnastics, ice-skating
- more objective = measurement system e.g. time, tape; checklists e.g. style/technique/execution; established criteria e.g. guidelines/procedures; rating scale (degree of difficulty), use of experienced judges to provide objective appraisal
→ ensures appropriate measure of athletic performance
- good if consistent
E.g. high jump = objective (metres + cm), gymnastics = subjective (judge’s opinion - use criteria to maintain consistency + improve objectivity)
Assessment of skill + performance
- Validity of tests
- the honesty/accuracy of a test - that is, the degree to which it measures what it is designed to measure e.g. standing broad jump measures power = valid
E.g. beep test = CV endurance = valid, as it gives accurate prediction of VO2 max, though a VO2 max test, done in a lab = more valid test
E.g. measure speed = time 50m sprint than vertical jump test - validity enhanced if known good performers perform better than known bad performers, if it’s reliable in predicting future performances + if component being tested is included in test
Assessment of skill + performance
- Reliability of tests
- refers to degree of consistency of a test - that is the ability of the test + tester to produce same results on successive occasions
- Improved reliability through use of similar equipment, checklists, procedures + conditions
- Tests that are both valid + reliable tend to be more objective + are best tests used to measure performance
E.g. shuttle run = reliable agility test if same tester produces same result with same athlete under same conditions successively
E.g. time how long it takes to run around same oval every day as a measure of aerobic fitness → may not be entirely valid but pretty consistent + shows improvements reliably
Assessment of skill + performance
- Personal vs prescribed judging criteria
Personal
- preconceived ideas/expectations that an individual brings to judge a performance + provide a subjective performance measure
- Frequently used by coaches when selecting teams, spectators when evaluating as based on feelings + impressions rather than assigned criteria
- Judge’s preconceived attitudes, expectations, opinions + possible bias may contribute to judgements that others may believe to be incorrect or unjustified
Prescribed criteria
- established criteria created by a sporting body or org, + form basis of assessment for comps in that sport/activity
- provide an objective performance measure e.g. checklist
- Often in form of checklist or rating system + helps to objectify subjective measurements
- doesn’t rely on feelings/emotions as a measurement tool
