FPE Exam Flashcards
Levels of Scientific Understanding In ABA
- Description
- Prediction
- Control
Description definition
Systematic observation results in accurate description of phenomena.
The process of collecting facts about observed events and classifying them for possible similarities to other known facts.
Prediction Definition
Systematic prediction that event A will cause event B.
The ability to anticipate the outcome of a future event by using past data to identify patterns and correlations.
Control Definition
A functional relation is demonstrated through systematic manipulation of the environment.
The purpose of establishing control is to minimize confounding variables so as to ensure a change in a dependent variable is a result of an independent variable.
Selectionism Definition
-A theory that describes the process of change over time in the organism’s biological status (natural), its behavior (operant), and its behavior in relation to other organisms (cultural) as a result of interactions with its environment
-The process in which repeated cycles occur of variation, interaction with the environment, and differential replication as a function of the interaction. Process of change as a result of interactions with the environment.
A concept that explains how people change over time based on their experiences and consequences.
A system or theory based on natural, artificial, behavioral, or social selection. Gaining traits, qualities, or behaviors based on a method or mechanism that chooses or selects them.
Three Levels of Selectionism
- phylogeny
- ontogeny
- culture
Phylogeny Definition
Having to do with the lifetime of the species.
Phylogenic (genetics)~
Natural: Unintentional, selected by the environment.
Guided: Intentional, selected by people for a specified phylogenic outcome.
Natural phylogenic selection - Genetic characteristics that are passed onto future generations via sexual reproduction (i.e., making babies the old school way).
Natural selector. The natural evolution of a species based on contingencies necessary for survival of the species.
Guided phylogenic selection - Desirable genetic characteristics that are passed onto future generations via artificial and selective manipulation (i.e., CRISPR)
Artificial selector. The artificial evolution of a species based on traits that are personally desirable to pass on to future generations.
Ontogeny Definition
Having to do with the lifetime of the individual.
The development of an individual organism, anatomical, or behavioral feature from the earliest stages of maturity. Referring to the study of the entirety of an organism’s lifespan.
Behavior over time.
Ontogeny
* learning/behavior
Ontogenic (behavior)~
Natural: Unintentional, selected by the environment.
Guided: Intentional, selected by people for a specified behavioral outcome.
Natural Ontogenic selection - Behavior is shaped by the natural consequences in the environment in the absence of a change agent.
Natural selector. Behavior develops and is shaped naturally and without a given plan.
Guided Ontogenic selection - Behavior is shaped by the consequences provided by a change agent.
Artificial selector like a teacher or clinitian. Behavior change occurs due to the intervention of an agent.
Culture Definition
Any group whose behavioral repertoire is controlled by a common set of rules and contingencies involving others.
Cultural (society)
Culture
* society/community
Natural: Unintentional, selected by the environment.
Guided: Intentional, selected by people for a specified cultural outcome.
Natural cultural selection - The tendency for the reinforcing and punishing practices of a culture to produce new forms of culturally normative behavior absent appeal to authority.
Guided cultural selection - Engineering cultural environments in such a way to promote desirable cultural practices and societal outcomes
The collective manifestation of human intellectual achievement including social behavior, institutions, and social norms found in society typically attributed to a specific region or location.
Culture, traditions, and customs over time.
Determinism Definition
Scientific assumption that phenomena/universe are lawful and occur as a result of other events in a systematic way.
The universe is a lawful and orderly place.
AKA “causal determinism”
All events, including human action, are ultimately determined by causes external to the will. * “butterfly effect”
Assumes that… Action has cause; determined by the environment.
The assumption of determinism states that world is orderly, predictable, and knowable. Events do not happen randomly and chaotically.
Indeterminism definition
Anti-scientific assumption that phenomena are free agents, neither predictable nor controllable, and therefore the past is of no value in understanding present behavior.
Not all events are determined by antecedent causes. Uncertain and undecided. • “Free will.”
Assumes that.. • Action is free from cause or without cause; free will.
Anti-scientific assumption that individuals have “free will”
• Anti-scientific assumption
• Phenoma are free agents
• cannot be predictable or controlled
• The past is of no value in understanding behavior
• “Free will”
Causal Determinism Definition
Assuming that phenomena are caused by knowable events in a systematic way.
AKA “determinism”
• Causal - can know exactly.
Scientific assumption that phenomena are lawful and occur as a result of other events in a systematic way.
Typically, what is meant by “Determinism.”
• Every event is necessitated by antecedent events and conditions together with the laws of nature.
• All events, including human action, are ultimately determined by causes external to the will.
Assumes that…
• Action has cause; determined by the environment.
• Absolutely knowable, perfect causation or perfect determinism.
Probabilistic Determinism Definition
Assumption that there are limits to the extent to which behavior is predictable. Inherent variability in matter and behavior make behavior predictable only in terms of mathematical probabilities of occurrence.
• Limits to the extent behavior is predictable (says it cannot be exact)
• Variability results in known probabilities
• Assumption that there are limits to the extent to which behavior is predictable.
• Inherent variability in matter and behavior
• Behavior is only predictable in terms of mathematical probabilities of occurrence.
Compatibilism Definition
Assumption that determinism and free will are compatible because the actions of humans are freely chosen even though the rest of nature is orderly and lawful.
Attempts to Reconcile Determinism and Free Will…
• Free will and determinism are mutually compatible.
• That it is possible to believe in both without being logically inconsistent.
The Problem…
• It is logically inconsistent.
• Creates an unnecessary exception.
• Difficult to define the exception.
• Unclear what the exception applies to.
Assumption that indeterminism and determinism are compatible
• Compatibilism - free will and determinism needn’t be exclusive
• Universe is orderly, but some action are
“free” (come from within)
• Example: “Most of my clients respond to treatment, but everyone once in a while I have one who is too strong willed.”
Empiricism Definition
It is possible to know about the world through our experiences with it.
Knowledge is derived from sense experience and observation.
Knowledge comes from…
• Experiencing the world…
• Gathering evidence…
• Observing matter…
• Experimenting…
• Investigating…
Decisions and learning through experience, observation, and measurement of material physical events.
Empiricism
• Objective
• Quantitative
• Verifiable by 2 or more people.
Make decisions based on objective, scientific data.
• Empiricism
- Know about the world through experience
- Francis Bacon is the father of empiricism, introduced the four sources of error.
• Knowledge solely based on what can be confirmed with the senses
• Through experience with the material world
- (Aristotle)
EXAMPLE: Kevin wants to see objective data showing improved sales to know if his training worked.
Empiricism…by observing.
We come to know about the world through our experiences with it. Our answers to problems and questions about the world come from our experiences in that world.
Epistemological assumptions describe how we come to know about the truth of our world. Empiricism describes one way; specifically, through our experiences in the world.
• Materialism most often is found with empiricism while Idealism most often is found with rationalism.
Parsimony Definition
A philosophical assumption that states that simpler explanations are often the most likely and should be considered before more complex explanations.
Start with the simplest explanation/hypothesis.
The simplest explanation is the better explanation.
• Simplest explanation is likely best (most useful)
• Seek simplicity
EXAMPLE:
• Eliminate simpler explanations before embracing more complex ones
• “Let’s examine the schedule of reinforcement for responding before we blame a ‘lack of grit’.
Pragmatism Definition
Philosophical assumption that a claim is true if it is useful, and that truth is known by interacting with rather than representing nature.
- “Truth” is what’s most useful.
Meaning, understanding, and truth are derived from successful practical applications to socially significant and real-world problems.
Truth criterion based on its practical application, usefulness, and utility.
• Application outcomes
Theories, truths, or beliefs assessed in terms of their success in realistic, practical application.
Truth Criterion:
• How useful it is, determines how true it is.
• “useful working”
• Truths are assessed by the success of their application
• Truth doesn’t exist as a platonic ideal. It is determined by experience.
truth = usefulness, practicality.
A claim is true if it is useful; truth is known by interacting with rather than representing nature.
Do the least harm.
Scientific Skepticism Definition
A scientifically acceptable philosophical position that suspends judgment about knowledge claims until they can be verified while retaining indifference toward the outcome.
Maintain objectivity, reserve judgment, and reasonably doubt the truth of something, especially until there is evidence. • Evidence required.
A scientifically acceptable philosophical position.
• Suspending judgment until verified
• Remain indifferent
• Conclusions are tentative
Remain neutral about claims until
evidence is available.
The practice of questioning claims that lack evidence or have questionable facts.
Skepticism Definition
Scientific, rational, or inquiry skepticism is a position where one questions the veracity of claims lacking empirical evidence.
Disbelief due to a lack of evidence.
The 6 Philosophic Assumptions
• Determinism
• Selectionism
• Scientific skepticism (philosophic doubt)
• Empiricism
• Parsimony
• Pragmatism*
Radical behaviorism Definition
• The basic foundation for our conceptual analyses
• Permeates all the branches
• Differs from methodological behaviorism in that it considers all types of behavior including:
• verbal behavior
• Private events (i.e., thinking and feeling)
Radical behaviorism is the philosophy of the science of behavior analysis. This is the philosophy to which Skinner subscribed in his experimental analysis of behavior, and what we continue to follow in applied behavior analysis today.
Philosophy underpinning the science and practice of behavior analysis.
Far-reaching, thoroughgoing, and inclusive of all aspects of behavior, including behavior found under or within the skin, private events, thoughts, feelings, verbal behavior, and the behavior of the scientist.
• Expanding from Methodological Behaviorism.
A type of behaviorism (developed by B. F. Skinner) which seeks to understand behavior in all its forms, including private events.
Radical behaviorism recognizes the interplay of ourselves as observers with the environment around us. We can observe our own experiences even if they are happening on the inside.
Explaining behavior from the perspective of radical behaviorism is the same as explaining behavior in general: behavior is shaped by the environment, contingencies, etc.
EXAMPLE: if I am deprived of food, I will feel hungry and probably cranky. When I eat, I will feel better because my blood sugar will rise back up. Next time, I will probably try to eat sooner because I know that eating at regular intervals prevents me from feeling hangry. This is radical behaviorism in action.
• Radical Behaviorism
- Foundation of Behavior Analysis
- Skinner’s stance
• Behavior of organisms is the subject matter of science
• Underpinning philosophy of behavior analysis
• Includes private and verbal behavior
• B.F. Skinner is the father of radical behaviorism
Dr. Burrhus F. Skinner - The Behavior of Organisms (1938)
“[Science] is a search for order. It begins, as we all begin, by observing single episodes, but it quickly passes on to the general rule, to scientific law.”
Radical behaviorism is the philosophy of behavior analysis and the basic foundation for all of the domains of behavior analysis.
Behaviorism Definition
Theory of behavior consisting of several interrelated ideas deriving from the original work of John Watson.
A theory that behavior is a response to stimuli and events in the environment. Behavior analysis is a laboratory science that studies how behavior is influenced by environmental events.
• Theory of behavior consisting of several interrelated ideas
• Directly observing human and animal action to study behavior
• John B Watson
Burrhus Frederic Skinner’s Views:
• Behaviorism was limited until the publication of Behavior of Organisms (1938).
• Behavior is a product of history, not the mind.
Behaviorism is the philosophy of the science of behavior, and it informs all other domains of behavior analysis.
“Behaviorism” is a broad psychological approach focused on observing and understanding behavior through environmental factors, while “applied behavior analysis (ABA)” is a specific, evidence-based practice that uses behavioral principles to actively change socially significant behaviors in real world settings, often with a focus on therapeutic interventions; essentially, behaviorism is the broader theory and ABA is the applied practice of that theory.
Two Types of Behaviorism
Radical and methodological behaviorism.
Methodological Behaviorism Definition
Refers to a philosophical stance that focuses solely on observable behaviors and environmental stimuli, excluding internal thoughts and feelings as subjects of study, essentially stating that only publicly observable actions can be scientifically analyzed and used to explain behavior.
Focuses on behaviors that can be seen and measured, and the external stimuli that influence them. It does not include private events in its analysis, but it does acknowledge their existence.
• Methodological behaviorism attempted to reconcile mentalism and behaviorism.
• Private events are not important
• John Watson is the father of methodological behaviorism.
Operationally defines consciousness in terms of the behavior used to measure, observe, and study it.
• Consciousness may be measured in terms of behaviors, such as engagement in social activities.
Methodological behaviorism studies behavior but still relies on mentalistic explanations referring to thoughts, ideas, and feelings to describe causes of behavior.
Applied Behavior analysis (ABA) Definition
The applied research focusing on developing new procedures and experimentally validating them.
Creating a technology or procedure that solves a socially significant problem.
• Function-based
- Identifying and addressing antecedents and consequences evoking/maintaining behavior
• Individualized
- “specific” antecedents and consequences
• Analytic
- Demonstrating functional relations
• Conceptually systematic
- 7 dimensions
• Applied research
• Goal is to solve problems of social significance
• ABA applies principles/theories to solve socially significant problems
• Natural environment
• Aligns with 7 Dimensions of ABA
• Develops technologies for practitioners
Professional Practice Guided by The Science of Behavior Analysis Definition
Defined as the application of the principles, methods, and procedures of the experimental analysis of behavior and applied behavior analysis (including principles of operant and respondent learning) to assess and improve socially important human behaviors.
Refers to the application of principles and research from the field of applied behavior analysis (ABA) in a professional setting, where practitioners use evidence-based interventions to directly change and improve a clients behavior based on well established behavioral science principles.
Another name for “professional practice guided by the science of behavior analysis” is ABA practice.
• The main goal is to help other persons to achieve their outcomes
• ABA practice is the implementation of procedures validated by ABA
researchers to make a difference in people’s lives!
• AKA ABA practice or ABA service delivery
Professional practice guided by the science of behavior analysis is focused primarily on learner outcomes when applying interventions supported by the science of behavior analysis.
Professional practice guided by the science of behavior analysis is represented by an individual that uses the principles, methods, and procedures of behavior analysis within their professional work.
Professional practice guided by the science of behavior analysis is the practice of ABA, designing, implementing, and evaluating behavior change programs focusing on professional practice and consultation.
A primary function of professional practice guided by the science of behavior analysis includes training and implementing behavioral technologies for direct staff and support.
4 Domains of Behavior Analysis
- The experimental analysis of behavior (EAB)
- Applied behavior analysis (ABA)
- Professional practice guided by the science of behavior analysis (AKA
ABA practice) - Conceptual analysis of behavior
Experimental Analysis of Behavior (EAB) Definition
The analysis of the controlling variables (environmental determinants) of the behavior of individual organisms to establish the basic principles of behavior.
Science for the sake of learning the properties of behavior!
Four Methodologies:
1. Direct, repeated measures (replication) of behavior.
2. Rate of response as a basic datum (behavior over time).
3. Visual inference of graphed data (data trends).
* and sometimes inferential statistics!
4. Within-subject comparison (comparing baseline to treatment).
• Theory driven research that focuses on processes
• Conducted across species in lab/contrived settings
• Quality results demonstrate
experimental control
• Discovers principles and theories
The experimental analysis of behavior (EAB) aims to discover and clarify basic principles of behavior through controlled laboratory settings.
• Our basic research.
• Focuses on discovering basic principles and processes.
• Began with B. F. Skinner’s publication of The Behavior of Organisms (“BOO”) in 1938.
• Skinner emphasized that behavior is of interest in its own right, not just as a symptom of something else.
The experimental analysis of behavior uses the methodology of direct, repeated measurement of behavior to discover and clarify basic principles of behavior and identify functional relations between behavior and controlling variables.
7 Dimensions of ABA
- Applied
- Behavioral
- Analytic
- Technological
- Conceptually Systematic
- Effective
- Generality
Applied Dimension of ABA
Interventions target behaviors that are important and relevant to the individuals daily life and social context.
Dimension of ABA that requires a focus on socially significant human behavior.
Make a difference of real, meaningful social importance.
Meaningful or important to…
• People
• Society
• Client
• Parent
• Employee
- Social significance.
Behavioral Dimension of ABA
Only observable and measurable behaviors are targeted for modification.
Dimension of ABA that requires a focus on behavior in its own right as a target for change.
The target for improvement (dependent variable - DV)!
Focused on…
• Observable behavior…
• Operationally definable behavior…
• Functionally definable behavior…
• Measurable behavior…
• The 7 dimensions of behavior…
> Count, Duration, Rate or Frequency, Latency, Force, Locus, and Topography.
The behavioral dimension means that the behavior targeted for change is the one in need of improvement and is measurable.
Analytic Dimension of ABA
Dimension of ABA that requires a demonstration of functional relations between behavior and environmental events through systematic manipulation.
Data is collected and analyzed to demonstrate a functional relationship between the intervention and the behavior change.
Functional relations through systematic manipulations…
• Demonstrate relationships between behavior and the environment.
• The relationship must be functional, meaning one causes the other.
• You must experimentally manipulate variables and show a causal relationship.
The analytic dimension of ABA is best demonstrated when an experiment shows a functional relation between the independent and dependent variables.
- One of the ways to thoroughly gather evidence of this relationship is by conducting a functional analysis.
Technological Dimension of ABA
Dimension of ABA that requires procedures to be clearly and completely described such that another individual could reproduce the application.
Interventions are described clearly and precisely so that they can be replicated by others.
A Technology…
• Can be used by others to solve similar problems
• Must have a clear, precise description and definition
• Able to be replicated or reused…
• Able to be verified..
• Consistent…
• Can involve training, education, feedback, and other supports…
• In ABA, procedures are completely identified, and precisely described and defined
• Allows for replication of procedures
• Allows for evaluating and fostering interobserver agreement and procedural integrity.
The technological dimension refers to the clarity and detail of an intervention’s description. Behavior analysts must describe the intervention so the person reading the study can replicate the procedures with proper training.
Conceptually Systematic Dimension of ABA
Dimension of ABA that requires procedures to be linked to and described in terms of the basic principles of behavior.
Interventions are based on established principles of behavior analysis.
Based on and described in behavioral principles…
• Consistent properties and principles…
• Consistent vocabulary…
• Consistent methods…
• Consistent philosophy…
• Consistent with theory…
• Consistent with formula…
• In ABA, procedures are linked to, and described in terms of, the basic principles of behavior.
Conceptually systematic means that descriptions of interventions, training, lectures, and procedure results must be related to the basic concepts and principles of behavior.
Effective Dimension of ABA
Dimension of ABA that requires behavior change in the intended direction and to a practical degree.
Interventions produce significant and meaningful behavior change.
Significant and Meaningfful change…
• Change occurs…
• Change is big enough to be meaningful…
• Methods work…
• Methods work well…
• Works as intended…
• Practical…
• Powerful…
Generality Dimension of ABA
Dimension of ABA that requires the effects of an intervention to maintain and spread to other situations and behaviors.
Learned behaviors should generalize across different people, settings, and stimuli.
The extent to which effective therapeutic variables, methods, or processes are observed across settings, people, species, or responses.
Results are durable and long lasting.
Changes generalize and maintain. The behavior carries over into the other contexts other than just the training environment.
EXAMPLES:
• Rob continues to brush his teeth after discharge from ABA services
• Sue plays appropriate with other children at the school playground though play skills training was conducted at the neighborhood playground.
Generality refers to behavior change lasting over time and carrying over to different environments, settings, and contexts different from the training environment.
Behavior Definition
Means anything a person says or does.
If a dead man can do it then it’s not behavior.
Behavior is that portion of an organisms interaction with its environment that involves movement of some part of the organism.
A behavior is a group of responses; a single instance of behavior is called a response.
Response Definition
A specific instance of behavior that can be observed or measured.
An “action of an organisms effector”
EXAMPLE:
A child raising their hand when asked a question in class.
Response Class Definition
A group of responses with the same function (that is, each response in the group produces the same effect on the environment.)
A group of behaviors that may look different but all serve the same function, meaning they produce the same outcome or consequence.
A group of behaviors that have the same effect on the environment or serve the same function.
EXAMPLE:
If a child wants attention, a response class could include behaviors like yelling, whining, crying or physically tugging on an adults clothes.
Stimulus Definition
“An energy change that affects an organism through its receptor cells”
Is an event or situation that causes a response, stimuli can be internal or external, and can take many forms including: objects, sounds, sights, smells, tastes, thoughts and emotions.
EXAMPLE:
Red light: a red light is a stimulus that signals a driver to stop.
Stimulus Class Definition
Refers to any group of stimuli sharing a predetermined set of common elements in one or more of these dimensions: physical, temporal or functional.
A group of stimuli that share a commonality in one or more of the following dimensions: physical, temporal, functional.
EXAMPLE:
Physical stimulus class: stimuli that share similar physical properties such as color, size, shape, weight and position. For example, an apple, stop sign and blood are all in the same stimulus class of “red things”.
Temporal stimulus class: stimuli that occur before or after a behavior. Stimuli that come before a behavior are considered antecedents, while stimuli that come after a behavior are considered consequences.
Functional stimulus class: stimuli that have the same effect on behavior. For example, different words or phrases that can be used to request help, such as “can you help me” or “I need assistance”.
An example of using stimulus classes in ABA therapy is teaching a child to identify multiple examples of fruits to enhance their ability to generalize the concept of “fruit”.
Respondent Behavior Definition
Respondent behavior is the response part of a reflex relation elicited by antecedents and this is behavior learned via consequences.
Is behavior that is elicited by antecedent stimuli.
EXAMPLE:
- Feeling anxious when seeing a dentists drill (due to past painful experiences).
- Salivating when hearing a bell that has been paired with food (Pavlov’s dog experiment)
- Blinking when something approaches your eye.
- Getting goosebumps when your cold
Essentially, any involuntary and unlearned response triggered by a specific stimulus that has been previously paired with a significant event.
Respondent Conditioning Definition
Formerly neutral stimuli can acquire the ability to elicit respondents through a learning process called respondent conditioning.
Is the focus of repeated pairings of stimuli to lead to a learned response.
A type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a naturally occurring stimulus, leading to an involuntary response to the previously neutral stimulus.
EXAMPLE:
- Pavlov’s dog experiment
- A famous study where a baby was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise.
Respondent Extinction Definition
Involves unpaired presentations of the conditioned stimulus (without unconditioned stimulus).
The process of repeatedly presenting a conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (US), leading to a gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response (CR), essentially “unlearning” a previously learned association between the stimuli and response.
The procedure of repeatedly presenting a conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus until the conditioned stimulus no longer elicits the conditioned response is called respondent extinction.
EXAMPLE:
When a dog, previously conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell (conditioned stimulus) because it was paired with food (unconditioned stimulus), no longer salivates when the bell is repeatedly rung without the food being presented; essentially, the conditioned response (salivation) weakens and eventually disappears due to the unpairing of the bell and food.
Operant Behavior Definition
Is any behavior determined primarily by its history of consequences.
Behavior selected by its consequences.
A voluntary, learned behavior that is controlled by consequences.
EXAMPLE:
- Reaching up and turning off a lamp.
- talking
- walking
- playing the piano
- riding a bike
- counting change
- baking a pie
- hitting a curveball
- laughing at a joke
- thinking about a grandparent
- reading a book
Operant Conditioning Definition
Refers to the process and selective effects of consequences on behavior.
Is the process of modifying behavior through reinforcement and punishment.
A learning method that modifies behavior by associating actions with their consequences, using reinforcement (rewards) to increase desired behaviors and punishment or extinction to decrease undesired behaviors; essentially, shaping behavior through the systematic delivery of positive or negative outcomes following a specific action.
EXAMPLE:
A therapist providing a child with a sticker (positive reinforcement) every time they correctly identify a color, encoring them to continue this behavior by associating the positive consequences with the desired action of naming colors correctly.
Operant conditioning refers to the selection of behavior through its consequences.
Operant Extinction Definition
The discontinuation of reinforcement for a previously reinforced response which results in a decrease in a dimension of that behavior.
Withholding reinforcement for a previously reinforced behavior. Contingency between response and consequence is broken*
Operant extinction occurs when a reinforcer is withheld each time the target response occurs.
Skinner wrote “when reinforcement is no longer forthcoming, a response becomes less and less frequent in what is called ‘operant behavior’”
A behavior modification technique where a previously reinforced behavior is decreased by consistently withholding any reinforcement that was maintaining it, essentially causing the behavior to occur less frequently over time by removing its positive consequence.
Schedule of non-reinforcement which specifies that the behavior is never reinforced.
The operant extinction principle encompasses both the discontinuation of reinforcement (procedure) and a decrease in the future probability of behavior (process)
EXAMPLE:
- Withholding a toy for a tantrum: if a child throws a tantrum to get a toy, the parent can stop giving them the toy. Over time, the child will learn that the tantrum doesn’t work and the behavior will decrease.
- Withholding attention for screaming: if a student screams to get attention, the teacher and other students can stop giving them attention.
Positive Reinforcement Definition
A response is followed immediately by the presentation of a stimulus that results in similar responses occurring more often.
Means adding a positive stimulus (like praise, a toy, or attention) immediately after a desired behavior occurs, which increases the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future.
EXAMPLE:
- verbal praise: giving a child a compliment or saying “good job”
- social interactions: giving a high five, smiling or tickling a child
- tangible rewards: giving a child a sticker, treat or toy
- natural reinforcers: giving a child a reward that happens directly as a result of their behavior, like fullness after eating
Negative Reinforcement Definition
When a behavior occurs more often because past responses have resulted in the withdrawal or termination of a stimulus, the operation is called negative reinforcement.
Means increasing the likelihood of a desired behavior by removing or avoiding an aversive stimulus (something unpleasant) following that behavior; essentially, taking away something negative to encourage a positive action.
A contingency in which the occurrence of a response is followed immediately by the termination, elimination, postponement, or avoidance of a stimulus, and which leads to an increase in the future occurrence of similar responses.
EXAMPLE:
- Drying hands: after washing hands, a child is helped to dry their hands with a towel to remove the wetness.
- Noise-canceling headphones: a child who is sensitive to noise can wear noise-canceling headphones to avoid the aversive stimulus
- Sensory break: a child who is overwhelmed by sensory stimuli can take a break in a calm environment to relieve the distress
- Turning off the lights: turning off a light at night removes the unpleasant stimulus of the light
- Removing a demand: during a therapy session, a child may exhibit challenging behavior when presented with a demand. If the child engages in the desired behavior, the demand is removed.
Automatic Reinforcement Definition
When data is undifferentiated across conditions (including the control), it is assumed that the behavior is automatically reinforced.
Reinforcement that occurs independent of the social mediation by others (e.g., scratching an insect bite relieves the itch).
Refers to the hypothesis that a behavior produces its own environment, as in the sensory stimulation from scratching an itch.
Automatic reinforcement refers to reinforcement obtained without the involvement of other people.
EXAMPLE:
Automatic positive reinforcement: when a person does something that makes them feel good:
- brushing their hair
- dressing themselves
- watching a movie
- adding sugar or milk to their coffee
- eating cookies because they like the texture
Automatic Negative Reinforcement: when a person does something that removes something they don’t like, such as:
- washing their hands to remove dirt
- turning on car wipers to remove rain
- turning off lights when going to sleep
- rubbing their leg to soothe pain
Automatic Sensory Stimulation: when a person engages in behaviors that provide sensory satisfaction, such as:
- hand flapping
- rocking
- spinning objects
- scratching an itch
- cracking knuckles
Schedules of Reinforcement Definition
Is a rule that describes a contingency of reinforcement, the environmental arrangements that determine conditions by which behaviors will produce reinforcement.
A set of rules that determine when and how often a specific behavior will be reinforced, essentially dictating the pattern of delivering rewards to strengthen a desired behavior, with options including reinforcing every instance (continuous reinforcement) or only intermittently based on a specific ratio or time interval.
EXAMPLE:
Could be praising a child every time they share a toy initially (fixed ratio 1), then gradually transitioning to praising them on average after every 5 times they share (variable ratio 5), to encourage consistent sharing behavior without relying on constant reinforcement; another example could be providing a break after every 10 minutes of focused work (fixed interval 10).
The term multiple control is used when problem behavior is maintained by:
More than one set of variables
Four Types of Schedules of Reinforcement
- interval
- ratio
- fixed
- variable
Interval Definition
Reinforcer delivered after the first response after a certain amount of time.
An “interval” refers to a specific period of time used to observe and record a behavior, where a behavior is only counted if it occurs throughout the entire interval.
EXAMPLE:
- a teacher might use a 30-second interval to observe if a student is “on task” during a lesson, meaning they must be working on their assignment for the entire 30 seconds to be considered “on task” for that interval.
-A teacher praising a student for appropriate behavior every 5 minutes, regardless of how many times they exhibit the behavior during that time frame; this is considered a “fixed interval” schedule, where reinforcement is delivered after a set time period has passed.
Ratio Definition
Reinforcer delivered after a certain number of responses.
A “ratio” refers to a schedule of reinforcement where a reward is given after a specific number of desired responses, with a “variable ratio” being a common example where the exact number of responses needed for reinforcement varies unpredictably.
EXAMPLE:
- a child might receive praise after completing an average of 3 math problems, but sometimes it could be after 2 problems, sometimes after 5, keeping them engaged and motivated to continue responding.
- would be praising a child after they complete a specific number of independent tasks, like giving them praise after every 5 times they put away a toy, which would be considered a “fixed ratio (FR) 5 or FR5” schedule; essentially, reinforcement is delivered after a set number of responses.
Fixed Definition
Number of responses or amount of time is constant.
A “fixed” schedule refers to a consistent pattern of reinforcement where a reward is given after a specific number of responses (fixed ratio) or a set amount of time (fixed interval).
EXAMPLE:
- praising a child every time they complete 5 math problems (fixed ratio of 5) or giving a break after every 10 minutes of focused work (fixed interval of 10 minutes).
- could be when a child receives praise or a preferred toy after completing a specific number of tasks, like saying “please” five times in a row or completing three independent work activities before getting a break; essentially, reinforcement is given consistently after a set number of desired responses are exhibited.
Variable Definition
Number of response or amount of time changes.
A “variable schedule of reinforcement” means that a behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses (variable ratio) or after an inconsistent amount of time (variable interval), creating a pattern where the individual doesn’t know exactly when the next reinforcement will occur, leading to a high rate of responding and making the behavior more resistant to extinction; essentially, the reward is delivered on average after a certain number of responses or time interval, but the exact timing varies each time.
A “variable” refers to any factor or characteristic that can be measured and can change within a study, typically used to observe how manipulating one variable (independent variable) affects another variable (dependent variable), which is usually the target behavior of interest.
EXAMPLE:
- Reinforcement schedule: varying the timing or frequency of reinforcement delivery (fixed ratio, variable interval).
- Prompting method: different types of prompts (verbal, visual, physical) used to guide a behavior.
Time-based Schedule Definition
Reinforcer delivery is based on time, regardless of what the individual is doing.
A preferred stimulus is delivered after an identified period of time, without any particular response requirement.
A reinforcement schedule where reinforcement is delivered based on the passage of a specific amount of time, meaning the reward is given after a set time interval regardless of the number of responses made by the individual, often used to encourage sustained behavior or patience.
EXAMPLE:
Praising a child every 5 minutes during quiet playtime, regardless of their behavior during that time, essentially reinforcing the behavior of staying quiet after a set time interval has passed; this would be considered an “FI 5” schedule (fixed interval 5 minutes).
Positive Punishment Definition
Presentation of an aversive stimulus immediately following a response with the effect that the response decreases in frequency.
An environmental change in which an aversive stimulus is added (presented) or magnified contingent on a response and decreases the probability of similar responses under similar circumstances.
The contingent onset or magnification of a stimulus can decrease the future probability of behavior.
“Positive punishment” refers to the practice of adding an aversive stimulus immediately following a behavior, which aims to decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future; essentially, it means adding something unpleasant to discourage a specific action.
EXAMPLE:
- timeouts: removing a child from an activity after they misbehave.
- verbal reprimands: telling a child that their behavior is unacceptable.
- Response cost: taking away a privilege or reward after a child misbehaves.
- overcorrection: making a child engage in corrective action after they misbehave.
- adding chores: giving a child more chores when they don’t do their responsibilities.
- spanking: adding a physical consequence to discourage a bad behavior.
Negative Punishment Definition
The contingent offset or attenuation of a stimulus can decrease the future probability of behavior.
An environmental change in which an appetitive stimulus is subtracted (removed) or attenuated following a response, contingent on that response, that decreases the probability of similar responses under similar circumstances.
Is the removal of a positive stimulus after a behavior to reduce the likelihood of that behavior happening again.
EXAMPLE:
- taking away a toy after a child throws a tantrum
- withholding screen time privileges after a child breaks a rule
- turning off the tv after a child sits on it
- taking away a child’s cell phone after they miss curfew
Automatic Punishment Definition
Punishment that occurs independent of the social mediation by others (i.e., a response product serves as a punisher independent of the social environment).
“Automatic punishment” refers to a behavior that produces a negative consequence for the individual performing it, without the need for another person to actively deliver that consequence; essentially, the behavior itself results in an aversive outcome, causing the behavior to decrease in frequency due to the self-inflicted negative experience.
Punishment is produced by the response.
EXAMPLE:
Would be someone repeatedly touching a hot stove, resulting in immediate pain which naturally decreases the likelihood of them touching the stove again; the burning sensation acts as the automatic punishment, directly produced by the behavior itself without any external intervention.
Automatic Positive Reinforcement Definition
Adding a consequence that does not involve another person following a behavior which results in the future increase or strengthening of the behavior.
“Automatic positive reinforcement” refers to a behavior that produces a pleasing or desired outcome for the individual performing it, without the need for any external person to provide reinforcement; essentially, the behavior itself delivers a positive consequence, like scratching an itch to relieve discomfort or turning on music to enjoy the sound.
EXAMPLE:
When someone brushes their hair because they enjoy the feeling of neatness it provides, essentially reinforcing themselves behavior by the positive sensory experience without needing external praise or reward from another person; other examples include putting on music to listen to, adding salt to food to improve the taste or scratching an itch to relieve discomfort.
Automatic Negative Reinforcement Definition
Removing a consequence that does not require another person following a behavior which results in the future increase in the behavior.
Subtractive consequence that does not require another person.
“Automatic negative reinforcement” refers to a behavior that directly removes or reduces an aversive stimulus (something unpleasant) without the involvement of another person, thereby increasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future; essentially, the individual reinforces themselves by performing the behavior to escape or avoid something uncomfortable.
EXAMPLE:
When a child with autism engages in repetitive rocking behavior to reduce feeling of anxiety, where the rocking itself acts as the behavior that removes the unpleasant sensation, reinforcing the rocking motion without any external intervention needed.
Automatic Positive Punishment Definition
“Automatic positive punishment” refers to a situation where a behavior produces a directly aversive consequence, without the involvement of another person, that decreases the likelihood of the behavior occurring again; essentially, the behavior itself adds something unpleasant, causing it to decrease in frequency.
EXAMPLE:
Could be a child repeatedly hitting their head against a wall, causing a sharp pain sensation which then discourages them from continuing the behavior; the pain from the impact acts as the “added” aversive stimulus, automatically decreasing the likelihood of the head-banging behavior repeating.
Automatic Negative Punishment Definition
“Automatic negative punishment” refers to a behavior that decreases in frequency because the individual inadvertently removes a positive stimulus from their environment as a direct result of their own actions, without any external intervention from another person; essentially, the behavior itself produces a negative consequence that reduces its likelihood of occurring again.
EXAMPLE:
Would be when a person repeatedly engages in a self-stimulatory behavior like hand flapping, which initially provides sensory relief, but over time the repetitive motion starts to cause discomfort in their hands, leading them to naturally reduce the behavior due to the negative sensory feedback they are experiencing without any external intervention.
Socially-mediated Positive Reinforcement Definition
Adding a consequence involving another person following a behavior which results in the future increase or strengthening of the behavior.
“Socially-mediated positive reinforcement” refers to a situation where a positive consequence, like praise or access to a preferred activity, is delivered by another person following a desired behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again; essentially, the reinforcement is “mediated” by the actions of another individual.
EXAMPLE:
When a teacher verbally praises a student for completing a task correctly, increasing the likelihood of the student repeating that behavior in the future; the praise from the teacher acts as the social reinforcement that strengthens the desired behavior.
Socially-mediated Negative Reinforcement Definition
Removing a consequence involving another person following a behavior which results in the future increase or strengthening of the behavior.
EXAMPLE:
Socially-mediated Positive Punishment Definition
“Socially-mediated positive punishment” refers to a consequence delivered by another person that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again, where the consequence is something added to the situation, like a verbal reprimand or a brief time-out, which is directly administered by a therapist or caregiver.
EXAMPLE:
Could be a situation where a therapist gives a verbal reprimand or a disapproving facial expression immediately after a client engages in an undesirable behavior, essentially adding a negative social consequence to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again; for example, saying “no, that’s not okay” with a stern tone when a child hits another child during playtime.
Socially-mediated Negative Punishment Definition
“Socially-mediated negative punishment” refers to a consequence where a desired item or activity is removed by another person following a behavior, which decreases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again; essentially, someone else actively takes away something positive to punish a negative behavior.
EXAMPLE:
Could be: a teacher briefly removing a students access to a preferred activity (like playing with a toy) after the student disrupts class by talking out of turn, causing the disruptive behavior to decrease in the future; here, the removal of the preferred activity is the punishment, and its “socially mediated” because it’s delivered by the teacher, a social agent.
Automatic Contingencies
Skinner (1957) used “automatic” to identify circumstances in which behavior is evoked, shaped, maintained or weakened by environmental variables occurring without direct manipulation by other people. All behavioral principles (e.g., reinforcement, extinction, punishment) can affect our behavior automatically.
Socially Mediated Contingency (Reinforcement)
A contingency in which an antecedent stimulus and/or the consequence for the behavior is presented by another person.
Unconditioned Reinforcer Definition
“Unconditioned reinforcer” is a stimulus that naturally increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring without the need for prior learning or pairing with other reinforcers, essentially meaning it is inherently rewarding and satisfies a basic biological need, like food, water, or warmth; also known as a primary reinforcer.
Removal of pain is an unconditioned reinforcer, innate to humans and does not require a learning history to be valuable as a consequence.
An unconditioned reinforcer is not paired with others, so it does not require learning but is innately a reinforcer, such as food or water.
EXAMPLE:
- food
- water
- oxygen
- warmth
- sex
- bladder and bowel relief
- pain relief
Unconditioned Punisher Definition
Is stimulus change that can decrease the future occurrence of any behavior that precedes it without prior pairing with any other form of punishment.
Unconditioned punishers include painful stimulation that can cause tissue damage (i.e., harm body cells).
Is a stimulus that does not have to acquire the capacity to decrease behavior.
“Unconditioned punisher” is a stimulus that naturally decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring without any prior learning, essentially acting as a punishment simply because it is inherently unpleasant or aversive, like pain, extreme heat or loud noises.
EXAMPLE:
- pain: physical sensations that are unpleasant, such as touching a hot stove
- extreme temperatures: exposure to very hot or cold environments that may cause harm
- loud noises: sudden, intense sounds that can be startling or distressing
- starvation: extreme hunger
- extreme thirst: lack of water
- lack of sexual stimulation: a biological need that organisms are born with
Conditioned Reinforcer Definition
(Sometimes called a secondary reinforcer or learned reinforcer) is a previously neutral stimulus change that has acquired the capability to function as a reinforcer through stimulus-stimulus pairing with one or more unconditioned reinforcers or conditioned reinforcers.
Conditioned reinforcers require prior pairing with unconditioned or other conditioned reinforcers.
“Conditioned reinforcer” is stimulus that becomes reinforcing through its association with a primary reinforcer (like food or attention), essentially meaning it gains its reinforcing power by being paired with something that is already considered rewarding, and thus encourages a behavior to occur again in the future; also sometimes called a secondary reinforcer or learned reinforcer.
EXAMPLE:
- tokens: a teacher might give students red tokens for on task behavior, and then exchange the tokens for treats at the end of the week.
- money: a conditioned reinforcer in real life, as children learn that money can be used to buy other reinforcers, like food and shelter.
- clickers: in dog training, a clicker can be paired with praise and treats to become a conditioned reinforcer.
- toys: toys that are fun to play with can be conditioned reinforcers.
Conditioned Punisher Definition
Is a stimulus change whose presentation functions as punishment as a result of a persons conditioning history.
A conditioned punisher acquires the capability to function as a punisher through stimulus-stimulus pairing with one or more unconditioned or previously conditioned punishers.
“Conditioned punisher” is a stimulus that becomes punishing because of its previous association with another established punisher, essentially acquiring its negative value through an individual’s learning history, unlike an unconditioned punisher which is inherently aversive without prior learning; meaning a conditioned punisher gains its punishing power by being paired with something already considered unpleasant.
EXAMPLE:
- fireworks: after a person learns that fireworks make loud sounds, they may avoid fireworks or events that have them.
- if you want a child to clean their room, for instance, you may reinforce this behavior by giving them an allowance every time that they do. By getting the same consequence (money) each time they perform the action (cleaning the room), they begin to learn this behavior.
Generalized Conditioned Reinforcer Definition
A generalized conditioned reinforcer is a conditioned reinforcer that is established as a reinforcer by conditioning through pairing with many other primary or already-established conditioned reinforcers.
“Generalized conditioned reinforcer” is a stimulus that has become reinforcing by being paired with a wide variety of other reinforcers, meaning it gains its reinforcing power not from a single specific consequence but from its association with many different potential rewards, making it effective across various situations and with different individuals; essentially, it’s a “secondary reinforcer” that has been widely paired with other reinforcers, like tokens in a token economy or praise that has been used consistently across different activities.
EXAMPLE:
Is a token used in token economy, where the token itself is not inherently reinforcing but gains its value by being exchanged for a variety of preferred items or activities, effectively becoming reinforcing across different situations and with different individuals.
Generalized Conditioned Punisher Definition
A stimulus change that has been paired with numerous forms of unconditioned and conditioned punishers becomes a generalized conditioned punisher.
Conditioned punisher paired with variety of other punishers, effective for range of behaviors.
“Generalized conditioned punisher” is a stimulus that has become punishing because it has been repeatedly paired with various other punishing stimuli, meaning it has learned its punishing properties through association with multiple negative consequences, making it effective in reducing behavior across different situations; essentially, it’s a “secondary punisher” that has gained its power through repeated pairings with other punishers.
EXAMPLE:
-Is social disapproval, like a disapproving look, frown or verbal reprimand as it has been paired with various other punishing stimuli across different situations, making it a widely understood signal of negative consequences for a behavior; essentially, most people learn to avoid situations where they receive social disapproval because it often leads to further punishment.
- “no!” Said in a stern tone: this word, when delivered with a specific tone of voice, can function as a generalized punisher as it’s often associated with other negative consequences.
- a disapproving head shake: a simple head movement can be a conditioned punisher if it’s been paired with other forms of reprimands in the past.
- a stern facial expression: a frown or a serious look can act as a generalized punisher because it often signals potential negative consequences.
Operant Extinction Definition
The discontinuing of reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior; the primary effect is a decrease in the frequency of the behavior until it reaches a pre reinforced level or ultimately ceases to occur.
If in a given situation, and individual emits a previously reinforced response and that response is not followed by a reinforcing consequence, then the person is less likely to do the same thing when he or she encounters a similar situation.
A process that weakens behavior when a behavior that was previously reinforced for a period of time is no longer reinforced and, therefore, stops occurring.
Schedule of non-reinforcement which specifies that the behavior is never reinforced.
Skinner (1953) wrote, “when reinforcement is no longer forthcoming, a response becomes less and less frequent in what is called operant extinction.”
“Operant extinction” refers to a technique where reinforcement is completely withheld for a previously reinforced behavior, leading to a decrease in the frequency of that behavior over time; essentially, by not providing any positive consequence, the behavior is less likely to occur again.
EXAMPLE:
- withholding attention: if a student screams to get attention, the teacher and other students can withhold attention when the student screams.
- not giving in to tantrums: if a toddler throws a tantrum to get a toy, the parent can stop giving the toy to the child.
- using weighted devices: to reduce hand-flapping, weighted hand devices can be used.
- disabling a fan: if a child turns on and off a light switch to get visual stimulation from the fan, the fan can be disabled.
Stimulus Control Definition
When the rate of a given behavior is higher in the presence of a given stimulus than when that stimulus is absent, we say that stimulus control is at work.
Is the idea that certain stimuli can reliably trigger a specific response.
EXAMPLE:
- eating while watching tv: eating food while watching tv is an example of stimulus control because the behavior of eating is triggered by the stimulus of watching tv.
- brushing teeth: teaching a child to brush their teeth independently is an example of stimulus control transfer.
- identifying letters: helping a child identify letters by fading visual aids is an example of stimulus control transfer.
- ordering a drink at a restaurant: is an example of stimulus control because the behavior of ordering a drink is triggered by the stimulus of being with friends.
Discrimination Definition
Is the ability to differentiate between stimuli and respond appropriately.
Discrimination occurs when an organism emits a response when a stimulus is present but not when other stimuli are present.
Discrimination occurs when the presence of one stimulus (SP) evokes a response, but the absence of the stimulus (S4) abates the response as a product of differential reinforcement.
EXAMPLE:
- A child might learn to identify a red object from a group of different colored objects.
- a therapist may teach a child to identify the color blue by presenting them with two objects, one blue and one red, and asking them to point to the blue object.
Generalization Definition
Is the ability to use a learned skill in different settings, people and situations.
Occurs across stimuli, settings, and people.
EXAMPLE:
- zipping up a jacket: a child learns to zip up a jacket and then can also zip up a backpack.
- asking for a toy: a child learns to say “I want the truck” to request a toy and can also say “I want the car” to request a different toy.
- asking for French fries: a child learns to ask for French fries at home and can also ask for French fries at McDonalds.
- sweeping the floor: a child learns to sweep the floor at a sleepover camp and can also sweep the floor at home.
Maintenance Definition
Behavior change continues in the absence of the intervention.
Maintenance of behavior refers to a lasting change in behavior.
“Maintenance” refers to the ability of an individual to retain and consistently perform a previously learned skill even after the instructional procedures and interventions used to teach it have been removed, meaning the behavior continues to occur without ongoing prompts or reinforcement in different situations; essentially, it signifies that the skill has been fully acquired and can be used in everyday life.
EXAMPLE:
Would be a child who learns to independently brush their teeth using a visual schedule and reinforcement, and continues to brush their teeth consistently even after the visual prompts and rewards are gradually faded away, demonstrating that the skill has been maintained without external assistance.
Stimulus Generalization Definition
Refers to the extent to which stimuli other than the SD acquire stimulus control over the behavior.
Behavior occurs in different settings but the response is the same.
Graded changes in some characteristic of a response as the stimuli change.
Behavior occurs in the presence of untrained materials, locations, or people.
Occurs when different, but physically similar stimuli evoke the same response.
When a person or animal learns a response to one stimulus and can then respond to similar stimuli.
EXAMPLE:
- greeting people: a child may learn to say “hello” to their mom, teacher and neighbor and then say “hello” to other people.
- taking turns: a child may learn to take turns playing a game with classmates and then be able to take turns playing a different game with a sibling at home.
- using the bathroom: a child may learn to use the bathroom at home, and then be able to use the bathroom at the park.
Response Generalization Definition
Is the extent to which a learner emits untrained responses that are functionally equivalent to the trained target behavior.
Behavior occurs in deferent settings but the response is different yet achieves the same outcome.
Emitting a new behavior that is functionally equivalent to the behavior that was taught.
Exteroceptive stimulus conditions are unchanged, but one or more aspects of the response are variable around the target response.
“Response generalization” means when a person learns a specific behavior and then demonstrates variations of that behavior, essentially using different responses to achieve the same outcome, all in response to the same stimulus; essentially, it’s the ability to flexibly apply a skill in different ways depending on the situation while still reaching the desired result.
EXAMPLE:
- Loraine was taught to remove weeds with a long weed removal tool. Although never taught or asked to do so, sometimes Loraine removes weeds with a hand towel or with her bare hands.
- When a child learns to ask for a toy by saying “I want the car” and then is able to use a similar phrase like “I want the ball” to request a different toy, demonstrating the ability to apply the learned skill to different situations with slightly varied responses; essentially, using different ways to achieve the same goal.
Motivating Operations Definition
Motivating operations momentarily alter the probability of behavior by altering the value of a consequence.
Motivating operations (MOs) are environmental factors that change the effectiveness of reinforcers and punishers. They can increase or decrease the value of a consequence, which influences the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
EXAMPLE:
- satiation: providing too much of a preferred stimulus, which can make it less effective.
- food deprivation: when someone is deprived of food, they may be motivated to seek it out.
- if a child is hungry (a motivating operation), food becomes highly reinforcing. In this case, food can serve as a powerful reinforcer to increase the likelihood of the child engaging in behaviors that lead to obtaining food, such as requesting or following instructions.
Rule-governed Behavior Definition
Behavior primarily controlled by a verbal description of an antecedent - behavior - consequence contingency.
Is behavior controlled by a rule (i.e., a verbal statement of an antecedent behavior consequence contingency) that enables human behavior to come under the indirect control of temporarily remote or improbable but potentially significant consequences.
“Rule-governed behavior” refers to actions that are controlled by a verbal or written rule describing a behavioral contingency, meaning a person performs a behavior based on what they have been told about potential consequences, even if they haven’t directly experienced those consequences themselves; essentially, following a rule without needing to directly encounter the contingencies it describes.
EXAMPLE:
- wearing a seatbelt: you wear a seatbelt because you know it’s the rule, even if you haven’t been in an accident for not wearing one.
- doing chores because your parents said so: completing chores even if you don’t immediately see the benefit because you understand the rule that you need to do them to avoid punishment.
- following traffic laws, like stopping at a red light, even if you’ve never personally experienced a negative consequence for running a red light; you do so because you know the rule is “stop at red lights” and understand the potential consequences of not following it, not necessarily because you’ve directly experienced a car accident from running a red light yourself.
Contingency-shaped Behavior Definition
Behavior acquired through direct experience with the antecedent - behavior — consequence relation.
“Contingency-shaped behavior” refers to a behavior that is learned directly through experiencing the consequences of one’s actions, meaning the individual comes into direct contact with the reinforcement or punishment following their behavior, shaping how they act in the future; essentially, learning by doing and experiencing the outcomes.
EXAMPLE:
- a puppy learning to go potty outside: the puppy receives praise and treats when they go outside, reinforcing the behavior of going to the designated area.
- choosing not to eat spicy food again after finding it too hot: direct experience with the unpleasant taste shapes the behavior of avoiding that food in the future.
- a child raising their hand in class to answer a question after being praised for doing so in the past: the positive reinforcement of praise directly shapes the behavior of hand raising.
- When a child learns to avoid touching a hot stove after directly experiencing the pain of a burn; they have learned through direct experience with the negative consequence (the burn) to not repeat the behavior (touching the stove).
Verbal Operants Definition
“Verbal operant” is a functional unit of language that describes different ways individuals use words to communicate, essentially acting as the building blocks of language and communication, where each type of verbal operant serves a distinct purpose like requesting, labeling or repeating words, with key examples including “mands” (requests), “tact’s” (labels) and “echoics” (repeating what is heard).
EXAMPLE:
Is a child saying “water” when they are thirsty, which is considered a “mand” as it is a request for something they need or want; other examples include saying “ball” when pointing at a ball (a tact) or answering a question like “what color is the sky?” with “blue” (an intraverbal).
Five Verbal Operants
- Mand: request
- Tact: label
- Intraverbal: question answering, filling in the blank, conversation
- Codic (textual and transcription): reading and writing words, respectively
- Duplic (echoic, mimetic, and copying words): vocal imitation, imitating sign, and copying words, respectively
Transitivity Definition
Demonstrated when, after training and reinforcement for accurate responding to equivalent relations between one stimulus (A) and another stimulus (B) and then between the second stimulus (B) and a third stimulus (C), the behaving organism accurately responds to relations between the first stimulus (A) and third stimulus (C) without direct training and reinforcement.
“Transitivity” refers to the ability to infer relationships between stimuli that have not been directly taught, meaning if a person learns that A is equivalent to B, and B is equivalent to C, then they can understand that A is also equivalent to C, without explicit training on that specific connection; it’s a key component of stimulus equivalence, allowing individuals to generalize their learning and make new connections between stimuli.
• If A = B, and B = C, then A = C
• A = B and B = C are trained
• A = C emerges without training
EXAMPLE:
If a child learns that a picture of a dog (A) is the same as the word “dog” (B), and then learns that the word “dog” (B) is the same as the sound “woof” (C), they can then identify that the picture of a dog (A) is also associated with the sound “woof” (C) without being explicitly taught that connection; demonstrating the ability to infer relationships between stimuli based on previously learned connections.
“A = B” and “B = C” leads to “A = C”
Symmetry Definition
Demonstrated when, after training and reinforcement for selecting a specific stimulus (A) that is not identical but is equivalent to the sample stimulus (B), the behaving organism also selects the sample stimulus (B) when presented with the original stimulus
(A) without direct training and reinforcement.
“Symmetry” is the ability to recognize that two stimuli are equivalent in both directions. This means that if a person can match stimulus A to Stimulus B, they can also match stimulus B to stimulus A.
• If A = B, then B = A
EXAMPLE:
Would be if a child is taught to match the word “cat” to a picture of a cat, and then, without direct instruction, they can also match the picture of a cat to the word “cat”, demonstrating that they understand the reversible relationship between the two stimuli; essentially, “A equals B” also means “B equals A” in this scenario.
Reflexivity Definition
Demonstrated when an organism selects a stimulus (A) that is identical to the sample stimulus (A) without direct training or reinforcement.
“Reflexivity” refers to the ability of an individual to identify a stimulus as being the same as itself, essentially meaning they can match a stimulus to its identical counterpart; it’s the basic principle of recognizing that “A equals A” and is considered the first component of stimulus equivalence.
• A = А
• Think “Reflection”
EXAMPLE:
- matching pictures: if a child is shown a picture of a dog and asked to select a matching picture, they should choose the picture of a dog.
Combinatorial Mutual Entailment Definition
Two stimuli that both have mutual entailment with a third stimulus.
“Combinatorial mutual entailment” refers to the concept within Relational Frame Theory (RFT) where multiple established relationships between stimuli can be combined to derive a new, related relationship between stimuli that weren’t directly taught, essentially allowing for complex inferences based on known connections; it’s the ability to combine several “mutual entailment” relationships to form a new, derived relation between stimuli not explicitly trained.
EXAMPLE:
- When a child learns that “apple” is bigger than “orange” and “orange” is bigger than “grape” and then, without direct training, can infer that “apple” is also bigger than “grape” - demonstrating the ability to combine multiple relational frames to derive a new relation between “apple” and “grape”.
- Two stimuli participate in mutual entailment with a common third stimulus
• If A is related to B, and B is related to C, then A is similarly related to C
• If Bill is the father of Kyle, and Kyle is the father of River, then Bill must be the grandfather of River
Operational Definition of Behavior Definition
“Operational definition of behavior” is a clear, concise and observable description of a specific behavior, using measurable criteria to ensure consistent identification and recording of the target behavior, eliminating ambiguity by focusing on specific actions rather than subjective interpretations; essentially, it defines a behavior in terms of what it looks like and how it can be measured, allowing anyone to accurately identify if the behavior is occurring.
• A good operational definition includes each of the following: function, topography, and non-examples of the target behavior.
Example of an Operational Definition
Anytime Amy kicks the wall with her foot from at least 6 inches from the wall with enough force to leave a mark or hole.
Direct Measures of Behavior Definition
Direct measures of behavior, as well as continuous measures (which are a form of direct measurement), are observations of the behavior as it occurs in real time, which is not stated in this example.
“Direct measures of behavior” refer to a method of collecting data on a target behavior by directly observing and recording the behavior itself as it occurs, meaning the observer is physically present and actively documenting the behavior in real time, as opposed to relying on reports or inferences from others.
EXAMPLE:
- would be counting the number of times a client engages in a specific behavior, like hand raising in class, during a set period of time; essentially, directly observing and recording the behavior as it happens, rather than relying on reports from others.
- duration recording: measuring how long a behavior lasts (e.g., timing how long a student spends off task).
Indirect Measures of Behavior Definition
Indirect measures involve asking the performer or others about the performance, which the supervisor did not do in this scenario.
“Indirect measures of behavior” refers to methods of gathering information about a persons behavior by asking them or others about their experiences and perceptions of the behavior, rather than directly observing the behavior itself, typically using tools like interviews, questionnaires or rating scales; essentially, it’s a secondhand account of the behavior’s occurrence.
EXAMPLE:
Include interviews with caregivers, rating scales, questionnaires, and self report forms where individuals provide information about a persons behavior rather than directly observing it happening in real-time; essentially, gathering information about the behavior through someone else’s perspective.
Continuous Measures of Behavior Definition
Continuous measures are a form of direct measurement.
“Continuous measures of behavior” refers to a data collection method where every instance of a target behavior is recorded during a specified observation period, providing a detailed picture of the behavior’s frequency, duration, and intensity, typically used for behaviors that occur frequently or last a long time.
EXAMPLE:
- frequency: counting how many times a child raises their hand in class during a specific time frame.
- Duration: recording how long a student engages in on task behavior during a given activity.
- inter-response time: measuring the time between two consecutive instances of behavior, like the time between two tantrums.
- Latency: recording the time it takes for a child to start completing a task after being given a verbal cue.
Product Measures of Behavior Definition
“Product measures of behavior” refers to a method of measuring a behavior by examining the lasting effects or changes it produces in the environment, rather than directly observing the behavior itself; essentially, assessing a behavior based on the “end result” it leaves behind, like a completed task or a tangible outcome.
•focus on the outcome…you are not directly observing the behavior, but instead looking at the tangible result it left behind.
EXAMPLE:
Counting the number of completed math problems on a worksheet to assess a students on task behavior or checking the number of dishes washed to assess a persons cleaning skills.
Permanent Product Definition
A permanent product is a change in the environment that is produced by behavior rather than the behavior itself.
EXAMPLE:
- a completed homework assignment is a permanent product that indicates a students behavior of completing their work, or the number of dishes washed after being instructed to clean up is a permanent product reflecting the behavior of cleaning dishes.
- academic work: a completed math worksheet, a written essay, a correctly answered quiz question.
- cleaning tasks: a clean room, a tidy desk, a pile of picked up toys
- physical activity: a completed exercise circuit, a measured distance run
Frequency Definition
Frequency is a recording of how many times the response occurs.
“Frequency” is a count of how many times a behavior occurs within a given period of time.
EXAMPLE:
- Would be recording how many times a student raises their hand to answer a question during a class session, simply counting the number of hand raises without considering the time it took to occur; for instance, noting that the student raised their hand “5 times” during the lesson is a frequency measure.
- counting how many times a child hits another child during playtime
- recording how many times a student leaves their seat in a classroom.
Rate Definition
Is the number of responses over time.
“Rate” is a measurement of how often a behavior occurs within a specific time period.
EXAMPLE:
- “John hit another student 10 times in a two hour period.”
- would be stating that a child “engaged in disruptive behaviors 5 times per hour” during a therapy session, where the “5 times” represents the count of the behavior and “per hour” indicates the time frame used to calculate the rate.
Percentage Definition
“Percentage” refers to a measurement that expresses the proportion of times a specific behavior occurred out of the total number of opportunities to perform that behavior.
EXAMPLE:
If a child correctly answers 8 out of 10 questions, their percentage of correct responses is 80%.
Duration Definition
Duration is the amount of time behavior occurs.
“Duration” is the amount of time a behavior lasts from start to finish.
EXAMPLE:
- how long a child has a tantrum
- how long a student is on task during a class
- how long a student spends working on homework
- how long a students spends in contact with a feared stimulus
Latency Definition
Latency is the amount of time between an SD and a response.
Latency is the time it takes from the stimulus to the response.
EXAMPLE:
- getting out of bed: the time between your alarm going off and you starting to get out of bed.
- cleaning your room: the time between being told to clean your room and starting to clean.
- answering the phone: the time between your phone ringing and you answering it.
- starting a task: the time between being given instructions and starting to work on the task.
Inter-response Time Definition
Is the time between two consecutive responses or behaviors.
Refers to the duration between two consecutive responses or behaviors emitted by an individual.
EXAMPLE:
- sensory based behavior: a child pauses for 20 seconds between instances of hand flapping.
- tangible based behavior: a child starts playing with a toy three minutes after it is presented.
- vocal outbursts: the time between the end of one outburst and the beginning of the next.
- sending a text message: the time between pressing send and composing the next text.
Topography Definition
Topography refers to the physical form of a response or what the behavior looks like.
EXAMPLE:
- Behavior: a child raising their hand to ask a question in class.
- In Tammy’s description of the child’s behavior, she is only providing information on the form of the behavior and what it looks like, which is the topography.
Magnitude Definition
Magnitude refers to the force or intensity of a behavior.
“Magnitude” is a measure of the intensity, force or strength of behavior.
EXAMPLE:
- screaming at a concert: if your friend starts screaming at a concert and it hurts your ears, that’s an example of high magnitude screaming.
- greeting a stranger: a greeting to a stranger might be a small wave and a quiet “hello”. In contrast, greeting an old friend might be a hug that lasts more than three seconds and a longer conversation.
Trials to Criterion Definition
Is a measurement of how many attempts are required to achieve a specific level of performance.
A measure of the number of response opportunities (trials) needed to achieve a predetermined level of performance (the mastery criterion).
EXAMPLE:
- a therapist is teaching a child to identify the color red, and it takes 10 attempts (trials) for the child to correctly identify the color red in 8 out of 10 presented objects, meaning the “trials to criterion” for this skill is 10 attempts.
- Kristin notes that it took Andrea 20 trials to master imitating clapping hands, 15 trials to master imitating raising hands over head, and 5 trials to master waving goodbye.
Whole Interval Recording Definition
Is a data collection method where an observer divides an observation period into smaller intervals and records whether a target behavior occurs throughout the entire duration of each interval, essentially only marking a behavior as occurring if it is present for the whole interval, not just part of it.
• For whole interval recording, a target behavior must occur for the entire interval to be marked as a “yes.”
EXAMPLE:
- monitoring a students assignment engagement: a teacher might use WIR to monitor how long a student works on an assignment during a 30-second interval.
- evaluating playtime behavior: a therapist might use WIR to evaluate how long a child plays with a specific toy without interruption.
Momentary Time Sampling Definition
Momentary time sampling is a measurement method in which the presence or absence of behaviors is recorded at precisely the specified time interval for an individual, not for the entire group.
“Momentary time sampling” refers to a data collection method where an observer records whether a behavior is occurring at the exact end of a predetermined time interval, essentially only capturing a snapshot of the behavior at that specific moment, rather than monitoring it continuously throughout an interval.
EXAMPLE:
- classroom engagement: a teacher observes a students on task behavior at the end of a five-minute interval.
- social interaction: a behavioral technician (RBT) records whether a child interacts socially at the end of a ten-minute recess interval.
Celeration Definition
Celeration is the change in rate over time (count/time/time).
“Celeration” refers to the measurement of how quickly a behaviors rate is changing over time, essentially indicating whether a behavior is accelerating (increasing rapidly) or decelerating (decreasing rapidly); it describes the change in the rate of a behavior rather than just the rate itself.
EXAMPLE:
- the rate of running miles each week increased over a period of four total weeks, which would be considered celeration.
Partial Interval Recording Definition
Is a data collection method where an observer notes whether a target behavior occurs at any point during a specific time interval, regardless of how many times it happens or how long it lasts within that interval; essentially, if the behavior occurs even once during the interval, it is recorded as having occurred.
• In partial interval recording, a behavior is marked as “yes” if it occurred at any point during an interval.
EXAMPLE:
Would be a teacher observing a students disruptive behavior in a classroom, where they divide the lesson time into 30-second intervals and record if the student displays any disruptive behavior at all during that interval, even if it only happens for a brief moment; if the disruptive behavior occurs at any point within the interval, it is counted as an occurrence.
Social Validity Definition
Behavior analysis efforts that not only target important behaviors but also change those behaviors in a positive and meaningful way are said to have social validity.
“Social validity” is a measure of how acceptable and meaningful an interventions goals, procedures and outcomes are to the people involved. It considers values, preferences and priorities of the participants, as well as broader social context.
• social validity is related to how acceptable a procedure is.
EXAMPLE:
Would be when a behavior analyst incorporates a child’s favorite home activity, like drawing, into therapy sessions with their parents approval, ensuring that the intervention aligns with the child’s preferences and real life environment, making the behavior change more meaningful and likely to be maintained outside of therapy sessions.
Internal Validity Definition
An experiment that show’s convincingly that changes in the dependent variable are a function of the independent variable and not the result of uncontrolled or unknown variables is said to have a high degree of internal validity.
“Internal validity” refers to the degree to which a study can confidently attribute changes in a behavior to the implemented intervention, meaning that the observed behavior change is directly caused by the manipulation of the independent variable and not by any other extraneous factors; essentially, it is the level of certainty that the treatment, not other variables, produced the observed behavior change.
EXAMPLE:
Would be a situation where a behavior analyst implements a visual schedule intervention to reduce tantrums during transitions for a student, and when the intervention is removed, tantrums increase again, demonstrating that the change in behavior is directly related to the intervention and not other factors, thus establishing a strong causal relationship between the independent variable (visual schedule) and the dependent variable (tantrum behavior).
External Validity Definition
Refers to the degree to which a study’s results are generalizable to other subjects, settings, and/or behaviors.
“External validity” refers to the extent to which the results of a behavioral study can be generalized to other individuals, settings or behaviors beyond the specific conditions of the experiment, essentially meaning how well the findings from a study can be applied to real world situations and different populations.
EXAMPLE:
Would be a study where a behavior intervention successfully reduces disruptive behaviors in a classroom setting with a specific group of students, and then the same intervention is replicated with different students in a different classroom, demonstrating that the results can be generalized to other similar settings and populations, thus showing high external validity.
Instrumentation Definition
“Instrumentation” refers to any change in the tools, methods, or procedures used to measure a behavior during a study, which can potentially affect the results if not carefully controlled, essentially meaning a change in the way data is collected that could threaten the internal validity of the experiment; this could include changes in observers, measurement systems or data collection procedures across different phases of the study.
• Instrumentation is a type of threat to internal validity which occurs when different measures are used across phases of a study.
EXAMPLE:
Would be if a therapist unintentionally changes their method of data collection throughout a behavioral intervention study, such as becoming more lenient with criteria for marking a behavior as “correct” during later sessions, which could skew the results and make it difficult to accurately assess the effectiveness of the intervention due to the inconsistent measurement method.
History Definition
History refers to variables other than the independent variable impacting the dependent variable.
“History” refers to an individuals “learning history,” which is the collection of all past experiences and environmental interactions that have shaped their current behaviors, including the antecedents (what happened before a behavior) and consequences (what happened after a behavior) that have contributed to their behavioral patterns; essentially, it’s the sum of all learned behaviors through previous reinforcement and conditioning.
EXAMPLE:
- In this case, two variables (the treatment and the medication) were introduced simultaneously, making it difficult to conclude with confidence that the change in the dependent variable was as a result of the independent variable and nothing else.
- Would be a child’s established pattern of behavior, where they have repeatedly used a specific action (like tantrums) to get a desired outcome (like avoiding a task), creating a “learning history” where that behaviors is likely to occur again in similar situations due to past reinforcement from caregivers.
Attrition Definition
Attrition is said to occur when participants drop out of a study.
“Attrition” refers to the gradual loss of participants from a research study over time, which can significantly impact the validity of the results by creating a skewed sample if individuals dropping out have different characteristics than those remaining in the study; essentially, it means participants leaving a study before it is completed, potentially affecting the data analysis.
EXAMPLE:
Would be when a client participating in a behavioral intervention program drops out before completing the program, meaning they stop receiving therapy sessions, potentially impacting the study’s results due to missing data from that individual.
Testing Definition
Testing refers to the influence of exposure to a test on performance on the same test across subsequent exposures.
“Testing” refers to the process of systematically observing and measuring a specific behavior to gather data and determine its frequency, duration or intensity, which is used to identify target behaviors for intervention and track progress over time during therapy.
EXAMPLE:
Would be using a standardized assessment like the “verbal behavior milestones assessment and placement program (VB-MAPP)” to evaluate a child’s language and social skills, identifying their current level of functioning and areas for intervention, often used for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).
Regression Toward The Mean Definition
Regression toward the mean refers to the statistical tendency of performance to return to the mean after an extreme value.
“Regression toward the mean” refers to the statistical phenomenon where extreme behaviors, whether very high or very low, tend to naturally move closer to the average (mean) behavior when measured again, often due to the influence of chance factors in the initial measurement; essentially, extreme behaviors are less likely to remain at that extreme level on subsequent observations.
EXAMPLE:
Would be if a child who is exhibiting a particularly high rate of disruptive behaviors during a specific session, due to potential situational factors like fatigue or excitement, shows a decrease in those behaviors during subsequent sessions without any specific intervention, simply because their behavior is naturally likely to move closer to their typical baseline level of disruptive behavior.
Maturation Definition
Refers to changes that take place in a subject over the course of an experiment.
“Maturation” refers to natural developmental changes that occur within a participant over time during a study, potentially influencing their behavior without and direct observation, which can act as a threat to the internal validity of research findings if not properly accounted for; essentially, it means the participants behavior may change simply due to their natural growth and development, not necessarily because of the treatment being studied.
EXAMPLE:
Would be a study where a young child’s language skills significantly improve over the course of an intervention, but it’s difficult to determine if the improvement is solely due to the intervention or if the child’s natural language development (maturation) is also contributing to the observed progress, especially if the study spans a long period of time like several months or a year.
Selection Bias Definition
Selection bias refers to pre-existing differences in individual participants impacting the outcomes of a study.
“Selection bias” refers to a situation where the participants chosen for a study do not accurately represent the broader population being studied, leading to skewed results that may not generalize to the wider group due to systematic errors in the selection process, often arising from non-random participant recruitment or attrition (drop-out) during the study.
EXAMPLE:
Would be if a researcher studying the effectiveness of a new behavioral intervention only recruits participants from a clinic that specializes in high-functioning autistic children, potentially skewing the results as the intervention might not be as effective for children with different levels of autism severity who are not represented in the sample.
Applicability Definition
Applicability refers to the extent to which research findings can be transferred to members of a population outside of participants in a study.
NOTE: don’t study to hard on this flash card.
Diffusion of Treatment Definition
Diffusion of treatment occurs when someone outside of the experimental context begins implementing the treatment without the approval from the BCBA.
“Diffusion of treatment” refers to a situation where individuals in a control group of a research study unintentionally learn about or adopt aspects of the intervention being provided to the treatment group, thus compromising the study’s internal validity by making it difficult to isolate the effects of the specific intervention being tested.
EXAMPLE:
Would be if a child in a control group (not receiving the targeted intervention) started exhibiting behaviors that are being taught to the treatment group children, simply because they are observing and interacting with the treatment group children during playtime or other shared activities, essentially “picking up” aspects of the intervention without directly receiving it themselves.
Inter-observer Agreement Definition
Inter-observer agreement measures how multiple people are measuring the behavior of interest, and social validity is related to how acceptable a procedure is.
“Inter-observer agreement” (IOA) refers to the degree to which two or more independent observers report the same observed values when measuring the same behavior or event, essentially indicating how consistent their data collection is and ensuring the reliability of the observed behavior.
EXAMPLE:
Would be: two therapists independently observing a student during a classroom session and recording how many times they raise their hand, with both observers recording nearly the same number of hand raises, indicating a high level of agreement between their data collection methods; essentially showing that their observations of the behavior are consistent despite being conducted separately.
Treatment Integrity Definition
“Treatment integrity” refers to the degree to which a behavioral intervention is implemented exactly as designed and outlined in the treatment plan, ensuring that the procedures are followed consistently and accurately, allowing for reliable evaluation of the intervention’s effectiveness; essentially, it means the treatment is delivered as intended with no significant deviations from the prescribed protocol.
• Treatment integrity would be an ideal method to measure how well staff are performing the necessary steps in a procedure.
EXAMPLE:
- inconsistent implementation: if some teachers fully implement an intervention while others adjust or skip parts, treatment integrity is lowered. This makes it difficult to determine if the intervention is effective or if other factors are at play.
- reliability errors: two observers may record the same response but at slightly different times. This can lead to poor reliability scores and dissimilar data outcomes.
- integrity errors: these occur when there are discrepancies between the prescribed protocol and the actual implementation of events. For example, delivering a reinforcer after a problem behavior.
Equal-interval Graph Definition
An equal interval line graph displays frequency of responses per session, day, or other interval being observed.
EXAMPLE:
Bar Graph Definition
• A bar graph focuses on the use of bars to display frequencies of behavior based on categories.
• Bar graphs are used to compare discrete sets of data across conditions.
Cumulative Record Definition
A cumulative recorder displays a cumulative record - a line recording every response increasing in number with the slope of the line denoting responses per minute.
• Cumulative records specifically focus on the continuous adding of responses over time, even though cumulative records are displayed on line graphs.
• A cumulative record represents changes in any repeated measure across time.
• A cumulative record never decreases, only a flat line for no responding or an increased data path for responding.
• A flat line on a cumulative record is a description of a zero rate to indicate no responding.
Semi-logarithmic Graph Definition
• semi-logarithmic graphs focus on the rate of responding over time.
Standard Celeration Chart Definition
• A standard celeration chart tracks changes in rate over time.
Dependent Variable Definition
The dependent variable is the variable measured for change after introducing the independent variable.
EXAMPLE:
Independent Variable Definition
In an experiment, the independent variable is the intervention, or the part of the experiment manipulated.
EXAMPLE:
Confounding Variable Definition
Confounding variables are variables that are not accounted for, which could be influencing the outcomes of an experiment.
EXAMPLE:
Which variable is expected to change as a result of an intervention being implemented?
Dependent variable
Which variable is directly manipulated when implementing an intervention?
Independent variable
Measuring the dependent variable in every condition of an intervention is representative of which feature of single-subject experimental designs?
Repeated measures
Repeated Measures Definition
Repeated measures refer to each participant’s target behavior, or the dependent variable is measured in every condition of the study.
“Repeated measures” refers to a research design where the same participants behavior is measured multiple times under different conditions over time (like baseline and intervention phases) within a study, allowing researchers to compare how the behavior changes across those conditions, essentially serving as their own control group by providing repeated data points on the same individual.
• is a single subject design experiment
EXAMPLE:
Recording how many times a child asks for help during a baseline period without intervention, then again during a period where a specific prompting strategy is implemented to see if the intervention increases the frequency of “asking for help” behavior.
Replication Definition
Replication refers to demonstrating similar results in an additional phase of the study.
Focuses on whether or not the behavior stays the same due to the intervention.
“Replication” in a single-subject design means repeatedly demonstrating the same behavioral change by manipulating the independent variable (intervention) across different phases of the study, essentially showing that the observed change is due to the intervention and not other factors, by reproducing similar results multiple times with the same participants serving as their own control.
• is a single subject design experiment
EXAMPLE:
Would be a study where a behavior analyst collects baseline data on a child’s disruptive classroom behavior (Phase A), then introduces an intervention like positive reinforcement for on task behavior (Phase B), observes a decrease in disruptive behavior, then removes the intervention and returns to baseline (Phase A again), and finally reintroduces the intervention (Phase B) to demonstrate that the behavior change is directly related to the intervention, with the second “B” phase acting as a replication of the first “B” phase results.
Prediction Definition
Prediction refers to the ability of researchers to determine what will happen to the dependent variable based on effects from previous phases involving the independent variable.
“Prediction” within a single subject design refers to the hypothesis or informed guess about how a behavior will change when an intervention is introduced, based on the stable pattern observed during the baseline phase of the study; essentially, it’s the anticipated outcome of the treatment based on the data collected before intervention starts.
• is a single subject design experiment
EXAMPLE:
Would be stating that if a students disruptive behavior decreases significantly during a phase where positive reinforcement is implemented (intervention), then when the intervention is removed and baseline conditions return, the disruptive behavior will likely increase again, demonstrating a functional relationship between the intervention and the behavior change; essentially, predicting that the behavior will revert back to its baseline level when the treatment is withdrawn.
Verification Definition
Verification involves demonstrating that baseline data of the dependent variable would have remained consistent if the independent variable had not been manipulated.
Focuses on whether or not baseline changes due to the intervention
“Verification” in a single subject design refers to the process of demonstrating that baseline levels of a behavior would have remained consistent if an intervention (independent variable) had not been introduced, essentially proving that any observed changes in behavior are directly attributable to the intervention and not other factors; this is typically achieved by returning to a baseline condition after implementing the intervention and observing if the behavior returns to its previous level.
• is a single subject design experiment
EXAMPLE:
Would be using an “ABA” reversal design, where a researcher collects baseline data on a behavior (A), implements an intervention (B), then removes the intervention and returns to baseline (A) again, demonstrating that the behavior returns to its previous level when the intervention is withdrawn, thus verifying that the intervention was responsible for the behavior change.
When would it be an advantage to have an individual serve as their own control in an experimental design?
To evaluate the treatment effectiveness for the individual
• Using the individual as their own control in an experiment allows the experimenter to evaluate how effective the treatment was for the individual. Comparing baseline data of multiple people or using a small number of participants does not allow the same analysis in determining how effective a treatment was for a specific person. External validity is not associated with individuals serving as their own controls, as external validity is better demonstrated with larger sample sizes.
A researcher is using a changing-criterion design to increase the distance a racecar driver will achieve over time. A baseline phase is established, then the researcher will gradually increase the mastery criterion for that driver. This design best demonstrates which feature of a single-subject design?
Individuals serving as their own controls
•In this study, only one individual is being used, and that individual’s baseline level is serving as the control. Since measurement of the distance driven hasn’t occurred yet, this does not best exemplify repeated measures. There is no mention of the results being replicated yet, and no prediction has been set.
One of the defining characteristics and advantages of single-subject experimental design is that the individual serves as their own control. Which of the following best represents an advantage gained related to this characteristic?
Lower number of participants are required to demonstrate control.
• The advantage gained from individuals serving as their own control is that fewer participants are required to demonstrate control. With group designs, a larger number of participants are needed to establish control, thus, making them more costly and time-consuming to use compared to single-subject designs.
What is the advantage of using a single-subject experimental design when examining the effectiveness of a new learning procedure?
Helps to reveal information concerning individual participants.
• An advantage of using single-subject designs to examine effectiveness of a learning procedure is that single-subject designs best reveal information about individual participants. Unlike group designs, which seek to determine effectiveness on a population, single-subject designs focus on effectiveness for the individual participants.
Which of the following is an advantage of using a single-subject experimental design as opposed to a group design?
Replication is a key feature to help establish internal validity.
• Replication is a key feature of single-subject designs, which help to establish internal validity within the experiment. Single-subject designs typically have higher internal validity than group designs.
Single-subject research helps to reveal which of the following?
Why behavior occurs on the individual level.
• Since single-subject designs focus on the individual and help to reveal why behavior occurs on the individual level by using the individual as their own control and replicating those results. Since single-subject designs are not meant for testing multiple variables, they would not reveal how multiple variables affect the individual’s behavior. Group designs look at how effective a treatment is for a large group.
Reversal Design Definition
Is a single subject design experimental design that involves establishing a baseline, introducing a treatment, and then removing the treatment.
“Reversal design” refers to a research design where a baseline condition (A) is initially established, followed by the introduction of an intervention (B), and then a return to the baseline condition (A) to demonstrate whether the behavior change observed during the intervention phase is directly related to the intervention itself, effectively proving a functional relationship between the intervention and the target behavior by “reversing” back to baseline conditions.
EXAMPLE:
Would be to study a child’s disruptive behavior in a classroom by first recording baseline data (A) of their disruptive actions without intervention, then introducing a positive reinforcement intervention (B) like praise for appropriate behavior, and finally withdrawing the intervention to see if the disruptive behavior returns to baseline levels (A) again, demonstrating that the intervention was responsible for the behavior change.
A BCBA wants to test whether a specific consequence will function as a reinforcer for a student’s hand-raising behavior in a classroom. The classroom teacher spoke with the BCBA and is willing to remove the intervention for a few days to make that determination. Which experimental design should the BCBA use?
Reversal design
• Reversal designs allow for an attempt to verify the effect of an independent variable on a behavior, reversing the student’s level responding to the level obtained in a previous condition. This would allow the BCBA to assess the effects of the reinforcer on hand-raising.
Multiple-baseline Design Definition
A multiple-baseline design is a single subject experimental design that measures the effects of an independent variable on multiple behaviors, settings or participants. It’s a flexible design that’s useful when it’s not ethical or practical to withdraw treatment.
Is a research method where an intervention is systematically introduced across different behaviors, settings or individuals at different times, allowing researchers to observe if a behavior change occurs only when the intervention is implemented, thus demonstrating a causal relationship between the intervention and the targeted behavior, while not requiring the withdrawal of treatment in all situations like a reversal design; essentially, each individual or behavior acts as their own control group.
EXAMPLE:
Would be studying a child’s disruptive behavior in different settings (like the classroom, playground and lunchroom) where the intervention (e.g., positive reinforcement for appropriate behavior) is introduced sequentially in each setting, allowing the researcher to observe if the behavior change only occurs when the intervention is implemented, demonstrating a causal relationship between the intervention and the behavior change across different environments.
Ron wants to determine whether the treatment for decreasing his client’s hand-biting will have the desired effect at home, school, and the grandma’s house. Which design would be most suitable for Ron to use?
Multiple-baseline design
• Multiple-baseline design allows for the assessment of a variable’s effect on one behavior across multiple settings.
Multielement Design Definition
Multielement refers to rapidly changing the intervention or treatment phase.
Refers to an experimental design where two or more different treatments are rapidly alternated, allowing for direct comparison of their effects on a target behavior, essentially acting as a “simultaneous treatment” comparison to identify which intervention is most effective; it is also commonly called an “alternating treatment design.”
EXAMPLE:
Would be a situation where a behavior analyst is comparing the effectiveness of two different reinforcement strategies (like praise vs. token economy) to decrease a students disruptive classroom behaviors, rapidly alternating between the two interventions throughout a series of sessions to see which one produces the most significant reduction in disruptive behavior; essentially, the student acts as their own control, experiencing both interventions in a short period to identify the most effective one.
Is a research method where two or more different treatments are presented in rapid succession to a single participant, allowing for direct comparison of their effects on a target behavior, essentially testing which treatment produces the most significant change.
In a multielement design, experimental control is demonstrated when:
Behavior is clearly and consistently different in one condition relative to other conditions despite variability in each.
Changing-criterion Design Definition
Changing-criterion design refers to gradually changing the criterion for reinforcement.
Is a research design where a baseline phase is followed by a series of treatment phases, each with progressively changing criteria for reinforcement or punishment, allowing researchers to gradually shape a target behavior towards a desired level by systematically increasing or decreasing the required response rate over time, essentially acting as a step by step approach to behavior modification; this design is considered a type of single-subject design where the individual serves as their own control.
Refers to a single-subject research design where the criteria for reinforcement of a target behavior are gradually adjusted (increased or decreased) over time, allowing researchers to assess if the behavior closely follows these changing criteria, thereby demonstrating a functional relationship between the intervention and the behavior change; essentially, it’s a method to shape a behavior by progressively raising or lowering the standard for reinforcement as the individual demonstrates progress.
EXAMPLE:
Would be a study where a behavior analyst aims to gradually decrease a clients cigarette smoking rate by setting progressively lower daily smoking quotas, reinforcing the client only when they meet each new criterion, demonstrating a clear link between the changing criterion and the reduction in smoking behavior.
• with the changing criterion design, treatment is delivered in a series of ascending or descending phases. The criterion that the subject is expected to meet is changed for each phase.
A changing-criterion design would be most appropriate when:
The goal is to gradually increase or decrease some dimension of a target response.
• Changing-criterion designs are most effective when the goal is to change a behavior gradually. If the behavior is not already in the repertoire, changing criterion designs should not be used. If the behavior is highly variable across different steps, other approaches may also be more ideal.
In a changing-criterion design, experimental control is demonstrated when the behavior:
Closely matches sequential changes in behavioral targets during sub-phases.
• Changing criterion designs are ideal to use for stepwise changes in a single target behavior that is already in the learner’s repertoire. To indicate control, an experimenter looks for the behavior to match the changes during each phase.
Comparative Analysis Definition
A comparative analysis examines the effectiveness of multiple interventions.
Refers to a research method where two or more different treatments or interventions are directly compared to determine which one is most effective in producing a desired behavior change, essentially identifying the best option among multiple treatment possibilities.
EXAMPLE:
Is comparing the effectiveness of two or more treatments.
Component Analysis Definition
Is an experiment that breaks down a treatment package to identify which parts are most effective. This helps to understand which parts of a treatment are necessary and which can be removed.
Is a research method where a treatment package is systematically examined by isolating and evaluating each individual component to determine which elements are most effective in producing behavior change, essentially identifying the “active ingredients” within a complex intervention.
EXAMPLE:
• treatment package: a behavioral analyst creates a treatment package for a client with aggressive behavior. The package includes differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA).
• baseline observation: the analyst observes the clients behavior without DRA.
• introduces DRA: the analyst introduces DRA to the client.
• systematically remove DRA: the analyst removes DRA and collects data on the clients behavior.
• analyze the data: the analyst analyzes the data to determine if DRA was an essential part of the treatment.
Parametric Analysis Definition
A parametric analysis evaluates different levels of the independent variable or intervention - such as different dosages of a drug.
Refers to an experimental design where different levels or dosages of an independent variable (treatment) are systematically evaluated to determine the most effective “amount” of that variable needed to produce a desired change in the dependent behavior; essentially, it’s about finding the optimal level of an intervention by testing various intensities or durations of it.
EXAMPLE:
Would be systematically changing the “amount” of reinforcement (like praise or tokens) given to a client to determine the optimal level that produces the most desired behavior, such as finding out how often praise needs to be delivered to maximize task completion, instead of just giving praise occasionally or after every task; essentially, testing different “doses” of the intervention to see what works best.
A behavior analyst is conducting an experiment using a multielement design to assess the effectiveness of praise as a reinforcer compared to edible reinforcers for on-task behavior with students in a special needs classroom. Which type of analysis would this be?
Comparative analysis
• A comparative analysis examines the effectiveness of multiple interventions in a multielement design.
Which of the following analyses examines the effectiveness of each part of an intervention?
Component analysis
A teacher wants to determine which fixed interval schedule will work best for improving a student’s performance on tasks. The teacher conducts the same program with the student using a 1-minute, 5-minute, and a 10-minute schedule of reinforcement.
Which analysis would be the most appropriate for this situation?
Parametric analysis
Which of the following best describes a component analysis?
A combination of praise and food is used to increase a client’s compliance with tasks. Praise and food are then tested separately to determine each stimuli’s effects on compliance.
Budget cutbacks at an agency require all behavior service plans to be streamlined to remove the “less effective” parts of treatment packages. The funding source has determined that trimming down to minimal, but still effective programs will significantly reduce staff-resource requirements by having staff run fewer program procedures per day. Which type of analysis is most likely to identify program procedures, which may be removed from the overall treatment package without compromising its effectiveness?
Component analysis
Which method should a manager use if they want to to determine whether verbal or written feedback leads to better employee performance at work?
Comparative analysis
Which of the following analyses examines the effectiveness of various amounts of an intervention?
Parametric analysis
Raul is the BCBA for a client who frequently requests breaks from tasks. Raul plans to use access to breaks as the reinforcer for the client completing work tasks. Raul first wants to determine the effects of varying lengths of breaks on client performance on work tasks. Which type of analysis would be best for Raul to use?
Parametric analysis
• In this example, a parametric analysis would be best since the BCBA is interested in knowing the effects of different amounts of break time. Parametric analyses examine the effects of different doses or treatment amounts on a dependent variable.
The most important reason to regulate professions, including the practice of behavior analysis, is to:
Protect the consumer
This process establishes and determines the qualifications of individuals to practice a profession, to be authorized as a service provider for an insurance company or an organization, and/or to be a member of a professional organization. This defines:
Credentialing
• Credentialing is the process that establishes and determines the qualifications of individuals to practice a profession.
Affiliation Definition
Affiliation is the joining or association of individuals or groups based on some commonality, and does not determine qualifications.
Accreditation Definition
Accreditation is the process by which schools or organizations have met standards by an external regulator.
Introduction Definition
Induction means the formal introduction of one into a job and does not involve determining qualifications for an individual to practice or to be authorized.
Lisa writes a resume in which she provides a full and accurate description of her training, work experience, and earned degrees related to behavior analysis. By providing these details, Lisa is adhering to which of the following ethics standards?
Public Statements by Behavior Analysts
Attending conferences and conventions, reading peer-reviewed literature, and participating in workshops are all activities that directly relate to which of the following ethics standards from the Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts?
Maintaining Competence
• Maintaining Competence. 1.06: Maintaining Competence states behavior analysts must complete professional-development activities, such as attending conferences, reading literature, or being involved in workshops, to maintain their professional competence.
Providing Effective Treatment
2.01: Providing Effective Treatment specifies treatments selected are evidence-based (e.g., supported by peer-reviewed research), this ethics standard does not focus on professional development; instead, it emphasizes service delivery.
Which of the following statements is a component of the foundational principle of Behavior Analysis, Behave with Integrity, as outlined in the BACB Ethics Code?
Respectfully educating others about the ethics requirements of behavior analysis and the mechanisms for addressing professional misconduct.
Don is a behavior analyst providing services in an elementary school setting. He has recently been experiencing significant untreated mental health concerns that have hindered his ability to consistently attend class observations and parent-teacher conferences resulting in one of his students being expelled from the school. Which of the foundational principles of Behavior Analysis is Don violating?
Benefit Others
• The foundational principle of Benefit Others states that behavior analysts work to maximize benefits and do no harm by actively identifying and addressing the potential negative impacts of their own physical and mental health on their professional activities.
Matt has been asked by an adult day training center to work with Carl, an adult with an intellectual disability. The center would like Matt to work with their staff on increasing Carl’s productivity when stuffing envelopes, as the center is in danger of losing the contract with the supplying business if they cannot obtain a higher yield. As Matt spends more time with Carl, it becomes clear that Carl is bored at work and does not like to sit for long periods. Carl states to Matt that he would rather have the job of moving carts of materials around the workshop.
Knowing this, Matt decides to advocate for Carl’s work preference. Which ethics standard is most relevant to this scenario?
Responsibility to Clients
• Ethics standard 3.01 Responsibility to Clients states, “Behavior analysts act in the best interest of clients, taking appropriate steps to support clients’ rights, maximize benefits, and do no harm.”
Which ethics standard requires behavior analysts to maintain client confidentiality when making an online post regardless if it is a personal or professional account?
Social Media Channels and Websites
• Code item 5.10 is the best answer due to personal and professional online accounts being mentioned.
Lila, a BCBA-D who is the director of the agency, hired Cathy a few months ago to provide her the supervision and experience necessary to meet all requirements for certification as a BCBA. However, Cathy has spent most of her time filing datasheets, organizing teaching materials, and proof-reading the behavior programs of other behavior analysts. Her supervision sessions with Lila focus on her work around the office and are regularly interrupted by Lila checking her email. Which, if any Code element does it appear that has Lila violated in this scenario?
Designing Effective Supervision and Training
• The program that Lila has designed to support the supervisee does not allow for the supervisee to actually practice task list items. This is a violation of designing a supervision program.
Rachel hired Scott to provide her with supervision as she accumulates the clinical experience needed to sit for the certification exam. Scott gives Rachel a copy of the BCBA® Task List, and together they check off each item they cover during their supervision hours.
He makes sure Rachel gets enough experience, not only implementing programs with clients, but also graphing, conducting different types of assessments, and making treatment decisions and evaluations. As Rachel’s supervisor, Scott is following which of the following ethics standards?
Accountability in Supervision
• Ethics standard 4.04 is about making sure behavior analysts are being accountable for the practices of their supervisees, including supervision and training. By making sure Rachel is getting enough experience, Scott is demonstrating accountability for her.
Which of the following BACB® ethics standards most directly relates to a supervisor evaluating their supervisee/trainee’s biases?
Cultural Responsiveness and Diversity
• This directly relates to ethics standard 1.07: Cultural Responsiveness and Diversity. Within the ethics standard, it states, “Behavior analysts also evaluate biases of their supervisees and trainees …”.
Jamie is a BCBA who owns her own agency, which provides services to individuals with behavior problems. One day, Jamie receives a referral for a young child who refuses to eat solid foods. Jamie asks Andrea, one of her supervisees, to develop a treatment plan for this child. Since Jamie is aware that Andrea has never worked with feeding disorders, she gives Andrea a couple of books to read before she takes this case. Did Jamie violate an ethics standard in this scenario? If so, which one?
Yes; Delegation of Tasks
• Since Jamie has made a decision for Andrea to complete the treatment plan with no appropriate training or expertise, she has demonstrated a violation of the code. This is a violation related to delegation of tasks because Jamie has assigned this task to Andrea, a supervisee who does not meet the requirements to carry out the task.
Jackson is a BCBA who runs an ABA agency and has recently received many referrals that he cannot address due to his lack of additional staff. He knows that a competent behavior analyst, Manny, has just moved to the local area and is looking for clients. Jackson contacts Manny and offers to send him referrals, based on his experience and professional repertoire, for a fee of $150 per referral. Manny gratefully accepts his offer. Based on ethics standard 3.13 Referrals, which of the following statements is correct?
This is acceptable, as long as the fees received are documented and clients and stakeholders are informed of them
A behavior analyst should always select, design, and implement behavior-change interventions that:
Prioritize positive reinforcement procedures
Which ethics standard is directly relevant to the requirement for behavior analysts to obtain separate and specific consent for each use of a particular recorded session for presentations?
Protecting the Rights of Clients, Stakeholders, Supervisees, and Trainees
• Informed consent is an ongoing process and requires continued evaluation of whether the treatment is still agreeable.
BCBA Kate is asked to give a brief, 5-minute presentation at a behavior analysis conference. She wants to report some demographic data and other findings from various source materials that will help make several of her key points, but time is limited. Kate plans to say, “government reports indicate,” and “research in JABA has shown,” to save time. If she quotes her sources in the presentation like this without providing the audience with information on those sources, what, if any ethics standard would Kate be violating?
Use of Intellectual Property
• Behavior analysts should always cite sources when quoting others in order to be compliant with using another’s intellectual material.
When a behavior analyst is providing consultation, teaching, or supervision from a distant location (e.g., via the internet), which ethics standard requires the behavior analyst to have the knowledge necessary to maintain the security of electronic transmission of information (e.g., issues regarding confidentiality)?
Documentation Protection and Retention
• 2.05 Documentation Protection and Retention would be the best choice as the behavior analyst would need to ensure that protection and retention of documentation is followed, even for individuals in which telehealth is provided.
Joy, a BCaBA, reads a brochure that advertises the agency where she works. She finds statements in the brochure about behavior analysis that are not true. She immediately reports this to her boss and requests that the brochure be corrected and reprinted. What, if any, ethics standard is Joy following by making this request?
Public Statements by Others
• In this scenario, Joy focuses on a public statement about ABA that is printed by someone else.
Ursula would like to write a magazine article to disseminate behavior analysis and inform people about the services available in their community. When writing this article, she asks some of her current clients to write a short paragraph on how their lives have been improved by receiving ABA with her company. Did Ursula directly violate an ethics standard in this scenario? If so, which one?
Yes; Soliciting Testimonials from Current Clients for Advertising
• As a behavior analyst, it is unethical to ask current clients to provide testimonials or reviews of services.
Taking data that have already been published in an academic journal article (written by another author), and using them in a brand-new article is acceptable if and only if
The old data are accompanied in the new article by a clear and direct acknowledgement of the source of those data.
• According to ethics standard 6.08, behavior analysts give appropriate credit to research contributors in all dissemination activities.
Bill advertises his behavioral practice on the internet. Which of the following statements would meet the requirements of the ethics standard relating to avoiding false or deceptive statements?
ABA has a strong foundation in scientific research as a highly effective treatment approach for many children with autism
In the Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts, one subsection outlines the ethical requirements for research in behavior analysis. In part, this subsection is included to help insure that:
Data are always reported accurately, helping to create an evidence-based science
• In research, accurate data reporting and interpretation are ethical responsibilities of the behavior analyst.
Which one of the following statements is true regarding the anonymity of participants in an experiment?
participant’s anonymity must generally be assured, unless it is waived by the participant in writing
• Participants in research must have total anonymity regardless of the situation
Jake is a 33-year-old who has not been adjudicated incompetent by law but engages in almost no verbal behavior. His capacity to provide informed consent is limited at best. Jake begins to participate in a nonrestrictive research study where he can earn a lot of his favorite food items and earn time to engage in a preferred leisure activity. Jake actively participates in the first couple of research sessions, but after these sessions, he begins to refuse to comply with directions and repeatedly runs to the exit door, only returning to his seat when physically prompted to do so. Given this scenario, the researcher should:
Discontinue Jake’s participation in the research study immediately
Which of the following would constitute a professional relationship between behavior analysts?
A BBA obtains an outside consult from a BCBA verbal behavior expert
• A professional relationship is one where a ВСВА would work together in an ethical way with another BCBA, such as a verbal behavior expert.
“Any data-based activity designed to generate generalizable knowledge for the discipline, often through professional publications”, quotes the BACB® Professional and Ethical Compliance Code’s definition of:
Research
• A primary function of research is to ensure that new information is found and disseminated in a way that allows for additional experimentation and replication.
Lyon is an adolescent who often engages in violent outbursts, often when his mother leaves the house to work her job at the local diner. After conducting a functional assessment, the BCBA meets with Lyon’s mother to discuss the assessment results. During this meeting, the BCBA uses precise behavior analytic language and answers the mother’s questions and concerns by referring to the tables of assessment data. The BCBA also discusses the relevant research articles that substantiate these conclusions in detail. Is the BCBA potentially violating an ethics standard?
If so, which one?
Yes; Communicating About Services
• The BCBA is not effectively communicating about services in a way that will facilitate the understanding of assessment results by the mother.
Which of the following steps should be conducted first when initiating a preliminary assessment?
Determine who can provide consent
• Informed consent is the first step to complete before implementing a preliminary assessment.
Ke-Shing, a behavior analyst, is conducting a behavioral assessment of Fabrizzio, often described by his own mother as a “rotten brat,” especially when he is around his sister at home. For the preliminary stages of the assessment, Ke-Shing asks Fabrizzio’s mom to come to his office. Which assessment methods can Ke-Shing definitely do exclusively in his office, assuming he is a competent behavior analyst who is correctly using assessment methods?
Records review, questionnaires, interviews
• Assessments that can be done in the office would exclusively be indirect assessment procedures, which don’t require direct observation of behavior.
Bennie, a 68-year-old male who lives with his brother has been referred for a behavioral assessment due to “excessive drinking of alcoholic beverages.” In making a determination regarding behavior analysis services, which question must be answered first?
Whether or not to intervene
• When a behavior analyst is approached by a potential client, they should never immediately start considering how to intervene, how soon to start, or where to provide the intervention. Instead, the first step should always be to consider whether or not to intervene.
Before implementing any behavior-analytic service, what needs to happen first?
Determine the need for behavior-analytic services
• Before implementing any behavior-analytic services, the need for the services should be established.
When determining the need for behavior-analytic services which of the following should be considered?
The impact the behavior has on the individual and those around them
• The impact the behavior has on the individual, and those around them should always be considered when deciding whether or not to provide behavior-analytic services.
What could be performed BEFORE an indirect assessment that could assist with identifying responses targeted for direct assessment and help determine the need for behavior-analytic services?
Preliminary assessment
• The purpose of the preliminary assessment is to gather basic information about a case and determine if behavioral services are warranted. Should services be recommended, the indirect assessment would follow where tools such as questionnaires, interviews, and rating scales are used to gather further information about potential target behaviors and environmental variables.
Which would be considered a behavioral cusp?
Toilet training
• Toilet training will result in access to new reinforcers, contingencies, and environments that were not previously available. Additionally, toilet training is socially valid, generative, and can compete with inappropriate responses.
Behavioral cusps are important to include in treatment planning because they do which of the following?
Expose an individual to new contingencies and reinforcers
• Exposing an individual to new contingencies and reinforcers are the only options that are direct criteria for behavioral cusps.
Which of the following skills is considered a behavioral cusp?
Learning how to request items, activities, and information
• Requesting is considered a behavioral cusp because it leads to new reinforcers, contingencies, and environments. It is also a more efficient behavior that can replace maladaptive behavior. Additionally, requesting is a prerequisite for more complex social communication and has a high degree of social validity.
If Jorden has never done any of the following behaviors but can learn any of them equally well, which behavior should the behavior analyst prioritize to teach Jorden first?
Reading printed text
• Behavior analysts should always focus on building socially significant goals. Reading a printed text is a socially significant goal because it will greatly increase the individual’s ability to independently contact a wide range of reinforcers. Although making the bed, saying please, and coordinating outfits are all good goals to learn, they are not as socially significant as reading.
Prioritizing behavioral cusps when developing a treatment plan is important because they do which of the following?
Allow more efficiency in learning
• One criterion for a skill to be considered a behavioral cusp is that it allows for more efficiency in learning. Additionally, behavioral cusps are skills that promote immediate and long-term access and opportunities rather than limiting or preventing access or learning.
If your learner can learn any of the following skills equally as well, which should you prioritize for your learner to acquire first?
Restaurant vocational skills
• Although all of the skills are socially valid to some extent, restaurant vocational skills is the correct answer.
Imitation is considered a behavioral cusp for which of the following criteria? Select all that apply.
☑️ It will lead to access to new environments
☑️ It will lead to access to new reinforcers
☑️ It is a prerequisite or component of a more complex skillset
☑️ It will lead to access to new contingencies
• Behavioral cusps may replace or compete with problem behavior rather than increase it.
Why should assessments be conducted to identify a client’s relevant skill strengths?
To find a starting point for other skills to teach
• It is important to understand what a client’s skill strengths are as it provides a foundation for what areas of strength and interests that can be built upon for related skills that will have the maximum benefit for the client. Assessments can also identify weaknesses and which skills need to be taught, but this does not provide information about specific activities or areas of strength that can be built upon for the client.
Which of these preference assessment methods is least effortful, but the results may be subjective and do not always correspond with more rigorous methods?
Indirect preference assessment
• Indirect preference assessments are the least effortful but may have subjective results that may not always correspond with direct, observation-based methods.
Direct Preference Assessment Definition
Refers to a systematic method of observing and recording an individuals choices between different stimuli (like toys, activities or foods) to identify their preferred items, essentially creating a hierarchy of what motivates them most, allowing therapists to use those preferred items as effective reinforcers during therapy sessions.
Indirect Preference Assessment Definition
Refers to a method of identifying a persons preferred items or activities by gathering information from others who know them well, like parents, caregivers or teachers, through interviews, questionnaires or surveys, rather than directly observing the individuals choices in real-time; essentially, asking about their likes and dislikes instead of directly presenting them with options to choose from.
Naturalistic Observation Definition
Refers to a research method where a behavior analyst observes and records an individuals behavior in their natural environment, without actively manipulating or interfering with their actions, to gain insights into their typical behaviors and interactions in real-world settings; essentially, watching how someone behaves in their everyday life without influencing their actions.
Structural Assessment Definition
Refers to an evaluation method that focuses on identifying and analyzing the antecedent conditions (what happens before a behavior) that trigger or influence a specific behavior, essentially examining the environmental factors that contribute to the occurrence of a behavior, rather than the consequences that maintain it (which would be considered a functional analysis).
This process may include interviews, questionnaires, direct observation, and experimental analysis:
Functional Assessment
Michael, a behavior analyst, just completed an indirect assessment for a 10-year-old boy named Stewart. Now Michael wants to conduct a direct descriptive assessment. What procedures could Michael use as part of the descriptive assessment process?
Narrative recording, scatterplot, and ABC data collection
Socially-mediated Negative Reinforcement Definition
Social-mediated positive and negative reinforcement are both forms of reinforcement provided by people.
Subtractive consequence involving another person.
Refers to a situation where a behavior is strengthened by the removal of an aversive stimulus, which is controlled by another person, meaning the consequence of escaping the aversive situation is delivered through social interaction with another individual; essentially, the behavior increases because it allows the person to escape or avoid something unpleasant by interacting with someone else.
EXAMPLE:
When a child starts to whine and complain about doing their homework and the parent removes the homework expectation as a way to stop the whining, effectively reinforcing the whining behavior by taking away the aversive task of doing homework; the child’s behavior is reinforced by the removal of something unpleasant due to the parents action.
• Continued presentation of demands is an example of an application of extinction for behavior maintained by socially mediated negative reinforcement.
Automatic Reinforcement Definition
Automatic reinforcement refers to reinforcement obtained without the involvement of other people.
Refers to a behavior that is maintained by its own consequences, meaning the individual reinforcers themselves without the need for social interaction or external rewards; the behavior produces a satisfying sensory or internal stimulation, essentially acting as its own reinforcer, even when alone.
EXAMPLE:
Socially-mediated Positive Reinforcement Definition
Social-mediated positive and negative reinforcement are both forms of reinforcement provided by people.
Refers to a situation where a behavior is strengthened by a positive consequence delivered by another person, meaning the reinforcement is contingent on the actions of another individual, making the behavior more likely to occur again in the future; essentially, someone else provides the reward for a desired behavior.
EXAMPLE:
When a teacher gives a student verbal praise (“good job”) after they complete a task correctly, increasing the likelihood of them repeating that behavior in the future because the praise is delivered by another person; essentially, the positive reinforcement is “mediated” by the teacher’s action.
Multiple Control Definition
Multiple control generally refers to behavior under the control of more than one set of variables.
Refers to a situation where a single behavior is influenced by more than one controlling variable, meaning that multiple stimuli, antecedents or consequences can trigger or maintain a particular response; essentially, a behavior is controlled by multiple factors simultaneously.
EXAMPLE:
Would be a child saying “red” when shown a red apple, hearing the word “red” spoken aloud, and seeing a red crayon, demonstrating that a single response (“red”) is controlled by multiple stimuli (the visual color red, the spoken word “red” and the context of the crayon) - this is considered “convergent multiple control” where different stimuli trigger the same response.
The term multiple control is used when problem behavior is maintained by:
More than one set of variables
Direct Descriptive Assessment Definition
Direct descriptive assessment involves direct observation and is a class of methods that may include ABC recording.
Refers to a method of evaluating behavior by directly observing and recording a persons actions in their natural environment, noting the specific events that occur before (antecedents) during and after (consequences) a target behavior, essentially capturing a detailed description of the behavior within its context to understand its function.
EXAMPLE:
Noting when a child starts hitting a toy (behavior) after being asked to clean up (antecedent) and then receiving a break from the task (consequence) to understand if the behavior is likely motivated by escape.
Functional Analysis (FA) Definition
functional analyses do not necessarily occur in the natural environment and do include environmental manipulations.
Hannah, a behavior analyst, has conducted an indirect assessment. What functional assessment procedure should she do next before systematically manipulating environmental variables?
Direct descriptive assessment
• Indirect assessments can provide useful information to help start a program. However, a direct-descriptive assessment is still required to obtain more information about possible relations between the behavior and the environment.
During the preliminary assessment, the caregivers of a child explain that “the problem behaviors often occur when the child is hungry.” When would be the best time for the behavior analyst to begin observing the child?
Every day before lunch
• It is best to try and observe the behavior in the conditions it is naturally observed. In this case, assessing before lunch will be the most likely time that the individual is hungry. Since problem behavior is observed when the individual is hungry, assessing while eating or after would not likely provide the best conditions to observe the problem behavior. Assessing at random times may or may not lead to observing the problem behavior. A better alternative would be to identify a time of day the individual would most likely be hungry.
Descriptive Assessment Definition
This is a description of how descriptive assessments are performed.
Structured Assessment Definition
Structured assessments are a type of descriptive assessment that include an antecedent environmental manipulation.
Indirect Assessment Definition
Indirect assessments usually do not involve direct observation
Which functional-assessment method consists of direct observation of the environment and the target behaviors as they occur in the person’s everyday life (i.e., where the behavior is actually occurring) but without any environmental manipulations?
Descriptive assessment
• This is a description of how descriptive assessments are performed.
Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA)
Indirect Assessment: interviews, questionnaires, rating scales, checklists
Direct Assessment: descriptive assessment, functional analysis
To draw clear conclusions from any functional analysis, it is essential to include which of the following conditions?
Play
• The play condition is the control, as the environment is set to allow non-contingent reinforcement for all potential functions and is likely to have the lowest rates of behavior (thereby allowing a comparison level for all other conditions).
Escape Condition Definition
A test used to determine if a persons problem behavior is motivated by the desire to escape from an aversive stimulus, like a task or demand, where the behavior is reinforced by the removal of that stimulus when it occurs; essentially, if a person engages in a behavior to get out of doing something they dislike, it is considered an escape behavior and the situation is called an “escape condition.”
Play Condition Definition
Refers to a controlled environment during a functional analysis where an individual is given free access to preferred activities and attention, with no demands placed on them, acting as a baseline to compare behavior against other conditions and determine the potential function of a problem behavior; essentially, it’s a “control” condition where the goal is to minimize the likelihood of a problem behavior occurring due to the readily available positive reinforcement.
Alone Condition Definition
Refers to a specific scenario during a functional analysis where an individual is left completely alone without any social interaction or attention, allowing the therapist to assess if a behavior is maintained by automatic reinforcement, meaning the behavior itself provides the reinforcement rather than external factors like attention or access to items.
Attention Condition Definition
Refers to a specific test condition within a functional analysis where a behavior is assessed to determine if it is maintained by the individuals desire to gain attention, meaning the behavior is reinforced by social interaction or verbal responses from others when it occurs; this is done by deliberately withholding attention and providing it only when the target behavior happens.
Scatterplot Definition
A scatterplot also involves direct observation and is a visual representation of that data.
Which functional assessment procedure can be used to help identify a correlation between certain events and problem behavior without observation?
Indirect Assessment
• The only answer choice that does not require observation is an indirect assessment.
Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule definition
average number of responses required each time (not the same number of responses required each time); AKA intermittent ratio.
Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule Definition
same number of responses required each time.
• FR-1 is also known as continuous reinforcement
Which schedule of reinforcement is more resistant to extinction?
Variable ratio schedule
• Variable schedules of reinforcement are more resistant to extinction and produce steady rates of responding because they are not as predictable to the learner as fixed ratio schedules.
What is the best schedule of reinforcement to encourage resistance to extinction of play skills in the natural environment for your client with a developmental disability?
VR 6
• Variable ratio schedules of reinforcement are most resistant to extinction because they are more unpredictable for the learner.
Celia’s closet light is keeping her awake at night. Which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?
Celia turns off the light in the closet
• An aversive stimulus (the light) is removed contingent on the behavior (turning it off), which is negative reinforcement.
Which schedule below is most susceptible to extinction?
FR 2
• Fixed ratio schedules are less resistant to extinction because they are more predictable for the learner. The smaller the ratio, the faster the response will extinguish so an FR2 would extinguish faster than an FR20.
Which schedule of reinforcement is least resistant to extinction?
Fixed ratio schedule
• Fixed ratio schedules are more predictable for the learner and more susceptible to extinction.
Discriminative Stimuli (SD) Definition
Is a specific environmental cue or signal that indicates to an individual that performing a certain behavior will likely result in a positive reinforcement or reward, essentially telling them what action to take in a particular situation; it acts as a trigger for a specific behavior by signaling the availability of reinforcement for that behavior.
The BCBA has the client sit at the same table each time they do DTT. What strategy is this an example of?
Discriminative stimuli
• The consistent table is a signal to the client that it is time for work.
Which of the following is an example of basing an intervention on motivating operations?
Targeting mands for food before lunch
• By completing the trials before lunch, motivation for food is likely high.
Establishing Reinforcer Definition
Establishing operations are antecedents that increase or decrease the value of the stimulus.
EXAMPLE:
Primary Reinforcer Definition
Primary reinforcers are things innately needed for survival like food, water, pain attenuation, etc.
SDelta Definition
SDeltas are antecedents that signal the availability or unavailability of specific consequences.
Stands for “stimulus delta,” which refers to a stimulus that signals that a specific behavior will not be reinforced, meaning performing the behavior in the presence of this stimulus will not lead to a desired outcome or reward; essentially, it indicates that reinforcement is not available for a particular response in that situation.
EXAMPLE:
Unconditioned Positive Reinforcer Definition
Refers to a stimulus that naturally increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring without any prior learning or conditioning needed, essentially meaning it is a reinforcing consequence that is inherently valuable to an organism due to biological needs, like food, water or warmth; also called a primary reinforcer.
Conditioned Negative Reinforcer Definition
Refers to a stimulus that has become reinforcing through its association with the removal of an aversive stimulus, meaning it gains the power to increase a behavior by being paired with the removal of something unpleasant, even though it wasn’t originally considered reinforcing on its own; essentially, a learned negative reinforcer.
Conditioned Positive Punisher Definition
Is a stimulus that becomes reinforcing due to its association with a primary (unconditioned) reinforcer, essentially meaning it gains its reinforcing power through learning and pairing with something already considered rewarding, like praise being paired with a preferred activity; it’s often referred to as a “secondary reinforcer” in ABA terminology.
Unconditioned Negative Punisher Definition
Is a stimulus that naturally decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring without any prior learning required, essentially meaning it’s an inherently aversive stimulus that, when removed following a behavior, increases the probability of that behavior happening again; like escaping from a loud noise or uncomfortable situation.
Tereza receives a sticker for every chore she completes. On Fridays if Tereza has earned at least 20 stickers her mother takes her for ice cream. What are the stickers an example of?
Conditioned reinforcers
• Ice cream, a primary reinforcer, has been paired with stickers, thus the stickers have become conditioned reinforcers for Tereza’s chore completing behavior.
Tina is training her dog to sit following the command sit. She says “sit” and if the dog sits she delivers a treat while pressing a clicker. Over time she no longer needs to provide a treat and the clicker reinforces the dog’s sitting behavior on its own. The clicker is an example of a:
Conditioned reinforcer
• A treat, a primary reinforcer, was paired with the clicker, thus the clicker has become a conditioned reinforcer for the dog’s sitting behavior over time.
Errorless Learning Definition
Errorless learning includes the use of the least most intrusive prompt for the learner and systematically fading the prompts over time to promote learning.
Most-to-least Prompting Definition
begin with the least intrusive, most effective prompt and fade out over trials.
The Sequence:
1. Hand over hand
2. Manual guidance
3. Light touch
4. Independent
Least-to-most Prompting Definition
begin with the least intrusive prompt on your hierarchy and gradually introduce more intrusive prompts within the same trial until the response occurs
The sequence:
1. Independent
2. Light touch
3. Manual guidance
4. Hand over hand
Time Delay Definition
Time delay procedures begin with simultaneous presentation of the target stimulus and response prompt. After the student has responded correctly for several trials, the teacher inserts a delay between the instructional stimulus and the response prompt.
adjust the time between the SD and when the prompt is delivered.
Stimulus Fading Definition
Involves highlighting a physical dimension (e.g., color, size, position) of a stimulus to increase the likelihood of a correct response.
In errorless learning, a prompt is:
Provided before any error can occur, so the correct response is always evoked.
• Prompts are provided before errors occur to help facilitate the desired response. Ideally, prompts are provided before errors occur to help promote the correct response.
Sherri is providing manual guidance to teach her client how to paint. She provides reinforcement for the correct prompted response, then systematically fades the prompts as long as her client is engaging in the correct response. If her client makes an error, she backs up to a prompt level where her client demonstrates the correct response and
systematically continues fading. What is Sherri using?
Errorless learning
• Errorless learning can involve physical prompts that systematically fade from most-to-least support to help facilitate correct responding. This example involves introducing heavy prompts that are systematically faded as the learner makes the correct responses.
This represents a method to help facilitate errorless learning.
Stimulus Equivalence Definition
Stimulus-equivalence refers to a concept regarding how relations are formed between stimuli.
Which of the following would be the best example of Sheneka using an errorless learning procedure to teach Guardia to brush her teeth?
Manually guide tooth brushing, then systematically fade to verbal prompts
• Errorless learning includes the use of the least most intrusive prompt for the learner and systematically fading the prompts over time to promote learning.
In a least-to-most prompting sequence,____ is first and last is _____.
Independent, hand over hand
Most-to-least prompting does which of the following?
Produce few errors
Modeling Definition
Show them what to do.
Imitation Training Definition
Copying someone’s motor movements (as they relate to sign language).
Instruction Definition
Task instructions in conditional discrimination training have varied from simple (e.g., “touch one”) to more detailed (e.g., “pick the one that matches” or “when you see this [A1], choose this [B1]”), and the best instruction set will again necessarily depend on instructional goals and the participants involved.
Rules Definition
Refer to verbal statements that describe a behavioral contingency, essentially telling someone what behavior to perform and what the potential consequence of that behavior will be, thus influencing behavior without direct experience of the consequence; this is called “rule-governed behavior”
Which of the following is an example of using rules?
Alaric tells the child to catch the frisbee between their hands so that it won’t hit their face
• Alaric is providing a statement of the A-B-C contingency to the client.
For rules to continue to be effective, the contingencies described need to:
Correspond with actual direct contingencies more often than not
• To be effective, rules need to correspond with direct contingencies more often than not.
Correspondence with actual direct contingencies that an individual may have already experienced (or is more likely to experience in a given situation) increases the likelihood there will be follow-through with a rule. Follow-through with a rule increases the effectiveness of a rule. Threats do not necessarily make rules effective, especially if the threats are rarely carried through. Additionally, a rule does not have to be punitive and can describe a reinforcement ABC contingency.
Shaping Definition
Shaping is a teaching procedure that uses the reinforcement of successive approximations towards a target goal.
EXAMPLE:
Chaining Definition
Is a technique that breaks down complex tasks into smaller, more manageable steps. It’s based on the idea that learning each step individually helps learners master the task as a whole.
Forward Chaining Definition
Forward chaining is an approach that involves teaching the steps of a behavior chain in the order they are supposed to occur.
Forward chaining is teaching a behavior chain starting with the first step and progressing forward to the end.
EXAMPLE:
Backward Chaining Definition
Backward chaining involves teaching first targeted steps at the end of a chain.
EXAMPLE:
Total Task Chaining Definition
Total-task chaining occurs when the entire task is taught, and the learner is only provided support as needed.
Discrete Trial Definition
Refers to a structured teaching method where a specific skill is broken down into small, individual steps, and each step is presented one at a time to the learner, with immediate reinforcement provided for correct responses, allowing for focused and systematic skill acquisition; essentially, each trial is a distinct learning opportunity with a clear beginning, middle, and end.
This arrangement repeated at a fast pace, often in an artificial environment.
- SD- Response- Reinforcer
EXAMPLE:
Free Operant Definition
Refers to a behavior that occurs naturally and freely without any specific cue or prompt, meaning an individual can engage in the behavior at any time without being directed to do so, allowing for observation of their preferred activities or responses in a relatively unrestricted environment; essentially, a behavior that is not controlled by a specific discriminative stimulus (SD) and can happen whenever the individual chooses to perform it.
Naturalistic Teaching Definition
Is a teaching method that integrates learning into a child daily life.
Based on the idea that learning is most effective in real world settings.
Embedding learning opportunities in their natural environment.
EXAMPLE:
Simple Discrimination Definition
One response is contingent on only one antecedent stimulus
i.e. “bowl”.
Conditional Discrimination Definition
“A discrimination in which reinforcement of responding during a stimulus depends on (is conditional on) other stimuli”
“When the nature or extent of operant control by a stimulus condition depends on some other stimulus condition”
Task Analysis Definition
A task analysis breaks down the components of a behavior chain into discrete steps and can help Stacy keep track of which skills her client can do correctly and which skills they do incorrectly.
A behavior analyst is helping a young learner to mand for desired objects. The learner loves toys, so the behavior analyst takes them into the toy room and when the learner points to a toy and names it, the behavior analyst provides the named toy. What is this an example of?
Naturalistic teaching
• The analyst is using naturalistic teaching procedures by utilizing a familiar toy room rather than a more contrived presentation of items, such as sitting at a table.
Which of the following could be an antecedent in a discrete trial?
An instruction
• An instruction is a stimulus that occurs right before the behavior (or response) and is an antecedent in a discrete trial.
Steps In A Discrete Trial
- Ensure attending
2 - Present the SD
3 - Allow the learner to respond
4 - Provide the consequence (reinforce correct response, error correct incorrect response)
5 - End trial, record data, and begin next trial
There are 4 pictures on the table. A picture of a cat, dog, fish, and horse. A child points to a picture of a dog when asked, “Show me the dog.” Reinforcement is made contingent upon the child pointing to the picture of the dog. This is an example of what:
Conditional discrimination
• The child is conditionally discriminating between multiple pictures to select the one being named. Simple discrimination would not include additional picture stimuli.
Verbal Conditional Discrimination Definition
Verbal conditional discrimination is when behavior is evoked by a stimulus only when another stimulus is present.
When one verbal stimulus alters the evocative effect of a second verbal stimulus, and collectively they evoke a differential response. What is this called?
Verbal conditional discrimination
• Verbal conditional discrimination is when behavior is evoked by a stimulus only when another stimulus is present.
A child learns that reinforcement is available when asking their mother rather than their father. This is an example of what:
Simple discrimination
• The child learns that in the presence of their mother, reinforcement is available, which would be a simple discrimination.
Steps of Simple Discrimination Training
Step 1 - Put one item in front of the learner.
Step 2 - Instructor names the item
Step 3 - Allow the learner to respond (prompt as needed).
Step 4 - Reinforce the correct response.
An Example Of A Simple Discrimination
Tarring a picture of a carrot after hearing “carrot”
According to LeBlanc, Sump et al., (2020), a discrimination which includes a discriminative stimulus, a particular response, and a reinforcer is called:
Simple discrimination
An Example Of A Conditional Discrimination
Hand me the blue marker.
Autoclitics Definition
A verbal operant that modifies other verbal behavior by a speaker is an autoclitic. By definition, an autoclitic behavior benefits the listener by providing additional information regarding the primary response.
Mand Definition
Manding is requesting an desired item.
Tact Definition
A pure tact would require no additional antecedent stimulus provided other than the sight of the item/activity/person that the individual is tacting.
EXAMPLE:
Saying, “Ball” in the presence of a ball is tacting.
Intraverbal Definition
An intraverbal is under the antecedent control of verbal discriminative stimuli; the individual is presented with a verbal antecedent stimulus (e.g., the cow says…), and their response (e.g., “moo”) is under the control of that stimulus.
When teaching someone how to tact, the maintaining consequence provided is typically:
A generalized reinforcer
• Reinforcement for tacts is typically provided in the form of social generalized reinforcement.
Jainey’s mom says, “Jainey seems to engage in chin hitting every time she wants a snack.” What verbal operant in Jainey’s repertoire would we most likely target for strengthening?
Mands
• Strengthening mands may lead to Jainey asking for a snack, which would be a functional replacement for chin hitting.
Duplic Definition
A duplic refers to a type of verbal behavior where the response is under the functional control of a verbal stimulus with formal similarity, but it does not modify other verbal behavior.
Matching-to-sample Definition
Matching-to-sample is the only procedure that could assess for knowledge of stimulus equivalence because an individual can physically demonstrate it by matching an item to another item it has stimulus equivalence with.
Prompt Fading Definition
Gradually removing prompts to minimize the likelihood of an error while transferring control from the prompt to SD.
Functional Assessment Definition
A functional assessment assesses for variables maintaining a specific behavior.
The goal of a functional assessment is to identify environment-behavior functional relations to guide the development of treatment.
The best way to identify these type of relations is by conducting a functional analysis.
Differential Reinforcement Definition
Reinforcement of some responses and extinction of others.
Which of the following procedures is most critical for assessing stimulus equivalence?
Matching-to-sample
• Matching-to-sample is the only procedure that could assess for knowledge of stimulus equivalence because an individual can physically demonstrate it by matching an item to another item it has stimulus equivalence with.
Stimulus Control Transfer Definition
• Procedure that uses multiple control to turn one verbal operant into another type through prompting and prompt fading
Steps:
• Identify a reliable operant
• Establish EO or new controlling antecedent
• Present the prompt (existing repertoire)
• Wait for the learner to emit the response
• Provide maintaining consequence
Stimulus Prompt Fading
Gradually transferring stimulus control from supplementary antecedent stimuli to the natural SD
High-p (high probability) Instructional Sequence
- Identify low-p target and 2-5 high-p responses
- Present high-p demands and reinforce after each response
- Present the low-p demand and differentially reinforce independent response
DRA (Differential Reinforcement of Alternative
Responses) Definition
A DRA would provide reinforcement for an appropriate alternative to talking about herself, but the goal is not to completely eliminate talking about herself.
• Used to replace problem behavior
• One response is reinforced while others are not (or receive less)
Provide greater SR for one form of bx and less SR for another.
• “Do this instead”
• Differential Reinforcement of Alternative
Behavior
- reinforce a different behavior, not incompatible
- Ideally functionally equivalent, but not always
- May include FCT
-“do this instead”
FCT (functional communication training) Definition
A DR procedure that targets a form of communication as the alternative response.
• FCT typically involves simple responses, often below developmental and social norms
• Training moves from efficacy to effectiveness.
DRO (Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior) Definition
Differential reinforcement of 0 rate of behavior (or Other behavior, or Omission)
- do anything but the target behavior, get reinforced -does NOT directly contact any behavior for reinforcement
- “Don’t do this”
DRL (Differential Reinforcement of Low-Rates) Definition
Differential reinforcement of low rate or DRL-T (increased IRT) also called spaced responding.
• Differential Reinforcement of Lower Rate (or with DRL-T, increased IRT)
- Reinforce lower rates of responding, or increased IRTs
- Initial criterion set just below average baseline rate, or slightly above baseline
IRT (for DRL-T)
-“Do this, only not so much/not so often”
• don’t use with behaviors you don’t want at all!
DRL Variations:
• Interval DRL
• Full-Session DRL
• Spaced Responding DRL (DRL-T)
NCR (non-contingent reinforcement) Definition
We can break the response-reinforcer contingency by providing the “reinforcer” based on the passage of time.
Extinction Definition
Withholding access to a positive reinforcer would be extinction.
Extinction would have included withholding reinforcement for completing the checklist.
Zach picks his skin until it bleeds. He usually picks about once every three minutes. The behavior plan specifies that if Zach does not pick his skin for two minutes, he gets a chocolate candy (highly preferred stimulus). If he picks, his timer is reset. Over time, Zach’s rate of skin picking decreases. This exemplifies which of the following procedures?
DRO
• In this scenario, Zach receives his preferred stimulus whenever he does NOT engage in the problem behavior in a three-minute period. This scenario does not target an incompatible behavior or an appropriate alternative, but rather the absence of the skin-picking behavior. This is not a punishment procedure; although skin picking is decreasing, it results from reinforcement of “other” behavior.
practitioner wants to quickly reduce the client’s high frequency of wrist-biting. The client does not demonstrate many behaviors in her repertoire. Which type of schedule would likely be the most appropriate?
DRO
• Since the client does not have many skills in her repertoire, it may not be feasible to reinforce an appropriate alternative behavior using a DRA. The goal is to quickly reduce the frequency of behavior and not maintain the current frequency, so a DRL and DRH would not be appropriate. A DRO would be the best choice because the target response for reinforcement is any behavior other than the wrist-biting
Ahmed’s pinching is maintained by escape from a reading task. Which of the following is the best example of an alternative, functionally equivalent behavior his BCBA could teach to decrease his pinching to escape the task?
Teach Ahmed to sign for a break
• Teaching Ahmed to sign for a break would allow him to access the same reinforcer as pinching, escape.
Chava hired a behavior analyst, Mary, to help her make friends. During an observation of peer interactions, Mary notes that Chava talks too much about herself. What should Mary choose to help Chava talk about herself less?
DRL
• A DRL will provide reinforcement for talking about herself less but does not require her to stop talking about herself completely.
Interval DRL
- Session is broken into smaller, equal time intervals.
- Reinforcement is delivered if responding is at or below criterion each interval
- Example: do not call out more than twice every 15 minutes (for an hour).
Full Session DRL
- Reinforcement is delivered if responding is at or below criterion
- Example: Call out no more than 6 times an hour, earn a recess break.
Spaced Responding DRL (DRL-T)
- Reinforcer is delivered, provided that the a designated amount of time has passed since the last response.
- If the response occurs before the elapsed time, the interval is reset
- Example: I will take you to the arcade as long as it has been at least a week since the last time you asked.
FCT Stages
Stage 1:
• Identify function
• conduct an FA (lISCA)
Stage 2:
• Teach an FCR (alternative, functionally equivalent bx)
• Considerations for selection/modality: response effort, social recognition, likely speed of acquisition
Stage 3:
• Generalization - extend training across caregivers
• multiple trainers and settings, include like stimuli, and sequential modifications.
A behavior analyst is providing support to a student in a classroom. The student will scream and cry when their teacher helps other students. The behavior analyst asks the teacher to continue helping other students when screaming and crying occur. The student eventually stops screaming and crying when the teacher is helping other students. What is this an example of?
Extinction
• The teacher is withholding reinforcement for screaming and crying, which leads to the behavior decreasing.
Time-out Procedure
• Non-exclusionary: learner is not physically removed from the environment. planned ignoring, timeout ribbon, contingent observation, withdrawal of materials
• Exclusionary: physically removed from the environment for a specified period of time. movement to another location, facial screening, time-in setting removed, seclusion time-out
Non-exclusionary Time-out
• Planned ignoring
-Remove attention contingent upon target Bx
• Time-out ribbon (really: a time-in ribbon)
- Indicator of availability of reinforcement is removed during time-out.
Non-exclusionary Time-out
• Contingent observation
- Cannot participate/earn reinforcement, but not removed from area where peers are earning
• Withdrawal of materials
- Lose tangible items or access to activities, but not necessarily earned in setting (distinguish from response cost)
Exclusionary Time-out
• Movement to another location
- Sent to a time-out room, bedroom, behind a partition/barrier, but not alone
• Seclusion
- Individual is alone — must be observed and not locked in!
Exclusionary Time-out
• Facial Screening
- Blindfold, screen or hands used to remove reinforcing visual stimuli
— AKA visual screening
• Time-in setting removed
- Environment is removed from the individual, rather than the other way around
Response Cost Definition
• The contingent removal of an already-earned reinforcer of a specific quantity or amount
- Negative punishment procedure
• Removal of an earned reinforcer
• Indefinitely - so it’s not time-out
• Not the individual’s personal items!
Restitutional Overcorrection Definition
this is a punishment procedure that requires the person to restore the environment beyond its original state.
Token Economy Definition
A behavior modification technique in applied behavior analysis (ABA) therapy that uses tokens to reward positive behaviors. It’s based on the idea that behaviors that are rewarded are more likely to be repeated.
A behavior analyst is providing support to a student that engages in SIB that causes extreme damage to themselves. The behavior analyst takes away the individual’s favorite toy when they engage in SIB. Rates of SIB decrease in the future. This is an example of what:
Negative punishment
• The analyst is removing (negative) an item, which results in a decrease in behavior (punishment).
A dog is running out of their human’s yard and getting bit by snakes that live in the area. The family puts an electric shock collar on the dog and shocks it when it tries to leave the yard. In the future, the dog no longer tries to leave the yard. This is an example of what?
Positive punishment
• The family added (positive) a shock to decrease (punishment) the behavior of running away.
In positive punishment, a stimulus is:
Presented that decreases future frequency of behavior.
• When we use the term “positive” in behavior analysis, we are referring to positive as a mathematical term meaning “added”. So, a stimulus must be added or presented to the environment for it to be positive.
Joe earns tokens for completing work that are exchanged for snacks at the end of the day. Every time he produces 15 widgets, he receives a token. If he curses, we take a token away from him. The procedure of taking a token away for cursing constitutes:
Response cost
Time-out, response cost, and fines/penalties, are procedures based on the principle of:
Negative Punishment
• Time-out, response cost, and fines/penalties are all procedures based on the principle of negative punishment. Each of the previously mentioned procedures involves removing either a specified amount of an appetitive stimulus (e.g., response cost, fines/penalties) or removing access to an environment that offers positive reinforcement (e.g., time-out).
Time-out from positive reinforcement decreases problem behavior in which of the following ways?
Terminates, and then prevents access, for a specified period of time, to a current appetitive stimulus condition.
• This describes timeout from positive reinforcement.
Token Economy Steps
- Identity target behaviors
- Select tokens
- Select backup reinforcers
- Establish earning/exchange ratio
- Develop procedures
- Field test & train
Kimmie has just completed her token training. Bingo discs are used and are functioning as powerful, generalized conditioned reinforcers. Now that the token economy system has been officially trained and implemented, when should tokens be dispensed?
Immediately after the performance of the target behavior
• Reinforcers should always be delivered immediately after the target behavior occurs, and tokens, as generalized conditioned reinforcers, require the same to be effective. Anything else is too delayed for the token to function as a reinforcer.
Independent Group Contingency Definition
Independent group contingencies work by only presenting the reinforcer to members that meet the goal.
Interdependent Group Contingency Definition
Interdependent group contingencies work by requiring the group to meet the goal for any members to receive reinforcement.
Dependent Group Contingency Definition
Dependent group contingencies work by rewarding the whole group based on the performance of one or more individuals
within the group.
Indiscriminable Group Contingency Definition
Indiscriminable group contingencies occur when the individual does not know whether or not the next response will be reinforced.
A teacher divides a class into groups of four students. If just one of the students in a group answers the teacher’s questions correctly, the entire group will receive a period of free time. Which of the following types of contingencies does this best exemplify?
Dependent group contingency
A behavior analyst wants all residents of a group home to increase their cleaning behavior but is concerned that several of the residents may sabotage a group effort. Which would be the best group contingency to use?
Independent group contingency
• Group contingencies can have the opposite effect intended when individuals may sabotage the effort. This is a result of the target goal requiring the combined effort of the whole group. In this case, using an independent group contingency would be a better option. This would allow individuals within the group to contact reinforcement, although other members are not meeting the required goals.
If all of the students in the group perform to criterion, then each student is rewarded with computer time, but no student gets computer time unless all of the students perform to criterion. Which type of group contingency is being used?
Interdependent group contingency
• This is an example of an interdependent group contingency. Interdependent group contingencies work by requiring the group to meet the goal for any members to receive reinforcement.
Each student who sells five entertainment books gets a ticket to an ice cream social on Friday. Those who do not sell five books will remain in the classroom during that time. This is an example of a(n):
Independent group contingency
• This is an example of an independent group contingency. Each student must meet the response requirement to earn a ticket to the ice cream social. Each student can engage in the response independent of each other, resulting in individual access to the reward.
Contingency Contract Definition
A document between two or more people with a rule that describes an
IF → THEN contingency
Used to:
- Increase behaviors that are already in the repertoire
- Decrease inappropriate behaviors
Describes:
• Behavior to be performed
• Who, what, when, how well?
• Reward that will be delivered
• Kind, amount, when?
Belinda and her parents decide that she is going to earn a new video game by helping around the house. They write a document that includes what tasks will be done, the due date for completing them, and what games she can choose from. They all sign it. What is this an example of?
Contingency contract
• They have completed the steps for a contingency contract, including working together to decide the terminal goal and putting it in a formal document.
Olive decides to use a contingency contract with Sinbad for keeping up with homework. She writes the contract that includes where he will put his homework each day, sets a mastery date, and chooses a new scooter as the reinforcer. She tells him to sign it, and puts it on the fridge as a reminder. What is missing?
Collaboration with Sinbad on the contract
• All parties were not involved in making the contract, and Sinbad did not get to give input.
If Dan’s performance in math is very good, Tom will give Dan a $15 gift card for a store of Dan’s choice, “within 24 hours of receiving his grades on a math test.” Do you find any problems with this contract?
The contracted task is not stated clearly
• This is an example of a contract that includes a task that’s not stated clearly. This contract is stated in positive terms and focuses on accomplishments; however, while the contingency may be beneficial to Dan, it is not clear which targeted response earns the reinforcer. This could lead to various undesired responses (i.e., cheating) and could incorrectly reinforce problem behavior.
Self-management Definition
Arranging your environment so you can respond more effectively to it.
• Arranging one’s environment to change responding
• Example:
- Ronnie lays out clothes the night before so that it is easier to exercise in the morning
A behavior analyst is providing in-home support to an individual trying to learn to take responsibility for their daily routine. They follow a task analysis for their morning routine, checking off all the tasks as they go through the routine. For every week that all steps are completed, the individual gets to pick their dinner location that Friday evening. This is an example of:
Self-management
• The individual is tracking their own behavior and determining when they access reinforcement.
An eager young learner that excels in math class has been answering too many questions in class and not giving other students a chance to respond. The teacher provides the student with a sheet to track how frequently they are answering questions in class. After the teacher asks three questions, the student can answer one. This is an example of:
Self-management
• The student is utilizing self management by tracking their own behavior.
Self-awareness Definition
Tacting the stimuli that affect one’s own responding (i.e., awareness training as a component of habit reversal).
Self-control Definition
Selection of a more desirable delayed reinforcer or the selection of an immediate, less aversive, punisher in lieu of delaying punishment or accessing reinforcement impulsively.
Self-Reinforcement: Definition
A form of chaining wherein one strategically schedules contact with appetitive stimuli such that desirable responding undergoes conditioning.
Which is a strategy to promote generality of behavior change?
Plan for natural contingencies
• When we plan for natural contingencies, this allows the response to contact naturally occurring reinforcers for the response and promotes variability in targeted behaviors.
A client is taught to ask his teacher, “I’ve completed my work; how does it look?” This prompts the teacher to respond with praise and feedback. What did the behavior analyst program for when he taught this skill?
Maintenance
• This promotes maintenance because it is a built-in prompt for the teacher to approach the client and provide praise and feedback each time the client completes work, contacting natural contingencies.
Which of the following is the best target behavior for reduction?
Dropping to the floor
• When identifying behavior, consider the three critical attributes of behavior: 1) biological in nature, 2) involves action, and 3) interaction between the individual and the environment.
Of the four options, “dropping to the floor” meets all three of these criteria. Furthermore, this target behavior is observable, measurable, and passes the dead person’s test. “Intent” and “forgetting” do not meet these criteria as they cannot be observed or measured. Non-behavior such as non-compliance does not pass the dead person’s test.
DJ is selecting goals for his three-year-old client Larry. Which of the following should be prioritized as goals?
Making requests to peers and siblings
• Making requests to peers and siblings is a socially valid goal to prioritize. Although sitting still at a table, sorting cards, and pointing to desired foods may be good goals for certain situations, other, more socially valid goals should be focused on.
Patrick’s teacher reports that he doesn’t answer any questions or stay seated in the same area as his peers, and he often gets up without warning to look at the pictures on the wall during circle time. Which of the following goals should be targeted first?
Staying seated for longer durations
• Before working on more demanding behaviors, starting with an easier pre-requisite like staying seated is a good idea. Sitting next to friends, responding to, and facing the teacher are excellent goals but could be too high a requirement for this learner. Starting with easier prerequisites like staying seated is a good approach in this case.
Which of the following is the best source for a behavior analyst to reference to identify potential interventions for a client?
The results of the client’s most recent assessments
• When identifying the best source to reference for client interventions, it is necessary that the behavior analyst reference the individual’s most recent assessment results. All treatment, interventions, etc. must be related to the specific client and never used based on another client’s treatment process.
A dog in an animal shelter is jumping on people. To help this dog get adopted, a behavior analyst has decided to target jumping on people to be decreased.
Which of the following would be an appropriate alternative behavior to teach?
Sitting or lying down
• Sitting or lying down would be an appropriate alternative behavior to teach. It is necessary to always target an appropriate replacement behavior when there is a target behavior for decrease. The target behavior to decrease in this case is jumping on people, which is likely maintained by attention. The “more adoptable” behavior would be for the dog to sit or lie down when approached by potential families. Families would more likely approach the dog sitting or lying down than the dog that jumps at someone. In being more approachable to families by sitting or lying down, the dog has a greater chance of accessing the attention reinforcer
Which of the following consequences is an unwanted side effect of using response cost?
Attention being called to the undesired behavior
• An unwanted side effect of response cost is attention being called to the undesired behavior. Response cost is a negative punishment procedure. When implemented, attention is called to the undesired behavior through the process of losing an appetitive stimulus (such as a token). A teacher would not become a conditioned negative reinforcer as that would mean the teacher would provide escape, not punishment. Decreasing aggression and/or undesired behavior slowly decreasing would be a wanted result of the procedure, not an unwanted side effect.
When a program is not resulting in outcomes expected, which is a good strategy to use?
Monitor the client’s progress and collect data on treatment integrity
• Monitoring the client’s progress and collecting treatment integrity data can help reveal areas in need of support. Ignoring outcomes or immediately making changes when programs aren’t running as intended can often lead to other mistakes.
Fluency Definition
Fluency is related to how well someone performs a task, but it does not necessarily mean the individual is doing the same behavior when needed.
EXAMPLE:
A behavior analyst is concerned that some of her staff may be failing to perform necessary steps during an error-correction procedure. This may be contributing to inconsistent progress on the part of the client. What should the behavior analyst measure to verify their concern?
Treatment integrity
• Treatment integrity would be an ideal method to measure how well staff are performing the necessary steps in a procedure.
Aadiv is the head of the athletic department for a private university and has heard from his coaches that some of the student athletes have poor attendance for practice. He established a self-monitoring and check-in protocol to increase attendance during practice sessions. The protocol uses a checklist that contains a list of necessary items to bring to practice as well as a check-in system that has student athletes input their student number when they arrive at practice. What is the best method of ensuring the intervention has been effective?
Regularly review graphs on student-athlete attendance and make decisions based on the current trends in the data
One of Darius’ clients has been having trouble echoing certain consonant-vowel sounds. Who would be the best person for Darius to contact for help?
The speech language pathologist
• A speech-language pathologist could assist this kind of behavior. Behavior analyst’s should collaborate with others who provide services to a client to help achieve outcomes.
If a client needs assistance with achieving an outcome, such as echoing sounds, the behavior analyst should reach out and work with the individual on the client’s team who has that expertise to help best serve the client’s interests.
A BCBA is starting a feeding program with his six-year-old client. The BCBA is working to increase his client’s tolerance for less-preferred foods during lunchtime at home. Which of these people would be the best person to help facilitate the feeding program?
The babysitter who prepares the client’s meals
• The best person to help facilitate the feeding program is the babysitter who prepares the meals. The babysitter can help prepare meals that include less-preferred food for the program. Because the scenario focuses on an at-home lunchtime feeding program, a school lunch lady or the tutor that comes later in the day would not be appropriate answers. In addition, the client’s sister does not provide food to the client or prepare the food.
What might be a potential risk when a supervisor observes their supervisee infrequently?
Treatment drift is likely to occur
• Infrequent contact with supervisees can create a supervision environment where more errors and less feedback occur. As a result, the supervisee may not maintain learned skills, and treatment drift will likely occur.
Supervision observations are not directly linked to client reinforcement, off-task behavior, or performance improvements.
What is a potential risk when providing feedback delayed multiple weeks or monthly?
The feedback may not be timely enough to change their performance
• Delays in feedback often miss the opportunity to contact the behavior. These delays may not have an effect on behavior due to extended temporal contiguity. It is unlikely that the feedback will punish the behavior, and due to the delay, it may not result in becoming aversive for the staff.
Setting pinpoints can help establish clear performance expectations. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of good pinpoints?
Includes group outcomes
• Group outcomes are typically not good pinpoints. Group outcomes include performances that are not necessarily under the individual performer’s control. All good pinpoints should state exactly the observable behavior that an individual should do, only including behavior under the performer’s control.
A supervisor at a clinic has two individuals they are to supervise. The supervisor is not making observations or providing feedback as frequently as the manager would like. What would help improve the supervisor’s performance?
Establish clear performance expectations
• Making clear how frequently and what type of observations to conduct can help the supervisee know what is expected. Modifying consequences for behavior are a good idea after the individual knows what to do and how to do it. Before moving the individual to a new location or placing new consequences for behavior, it may be more efficient to ensure expectations have been communicated.
Which of the following is the best strategy for performing an assessment of supervisee’s skills?
Direct observation of supervisee performance
• Direct observation is an effective method of assessing performance. Although self-reports, interviews, and the individual’s previous performances may be helpful pieces of information, the best method to assess current performance is to observe the performance and collect data directly.
When given the task to assess a supervisee, which data-collection strategy should be used?
Set pinpoints to measure supervisee behavior
• Setting pinpoints is a great strategy when gathering performance data. Self-reports, final products, and interviews can all provide helpful information, but setting pinpoints is a more ideal strategy for collecting data on performance. Pinpoints allow us to observe and measure behavior as it occurs, whereas self-reports, final products, and interviews all rely on data gathered before or after the behavior has occurred.
When training individuals in a new intervention, how long should practice, roleplay, and receiving feedback continue?
Until the individuals meet mastery criterion
• When training individuals in a new intervention, training should continue until mastery criteria have been met. Training programs should not be assumed never to stop or to be completed before a given date.
Mastery criterion should be set that represents the completion of the desired goal and be represented by more than completing the task one time.
When training individuals in a new role, what is a good strategy to ensure the target behaviors are learned?
Provide opportunities for roleplay and practice
• Roleplay and practice are good strategies to help ensure target behaviors are learned. Providing posters to prompt the correct behaviors and providing consequences, like reprimands or reinforcers, are best after the individual has demonstrated mastery of the behavior they are to perform.
If a supervisee fails to meet mastery criteria of a task, what should the supervisor do?
Provide additional support using a behavioral skills training approach
• The best strategy to help an individual master a new skill is to provide a BST program. Asking an individual to repeat a failed task or modifying the consequences for a task may not be helpful if they do not know how to carry out the task properly.
Which of the following can help facilitate effective supervision and feedback sessions?
Explain why the supervisee is being observed
• Supervisees will often be much more receptive to supervision if they are made aware of why they are being supervised.
Publicly posting data, creating a group contingency, or only observing when employees are struggling can run the risk of creating an aversive situation and deteriorating an effective
supervisor/supervisee relationship.
After providing feedback, following up with a check-in can help to do which of the following?
Detect potential problems earlier
• Following up feedback with a check-in can help with identifying potential problems before they become an issue. Following up with feedback doesn’t necessarily mean any behavior will be punished or reinforced. Following up would more likely lead to an improved supervisor/supervisee relationship rather than the deterioration.
A manager reviews her supervisor’s notes and notices that an employee is no longer wearing the required protective equipment for their position. What is the best strategy to identify the variables affecting their performance?
Conduct a performance analysis
• A performance analysis would be ideal in this situation to help identify the variables affecting job performance. Providing more supervision, job aids, or modifying consequences may not help to identify the variables associated with the performance problem. Instead, a performance analysis would be the best strategy to identify the relevant variables influencing performance.
What makes a strategy function-based?
The selection of solutions based on the function of behavior
• Function-based strategies provide
individualized solutions based on the function of the behavior. Although function-based solutions may use reinforcement procedures, collect data, and focus on observable behavior, what makes them function-based is the procedure is based on the function of the behavior in question.
Examples of Consequence-based Interventions.
Incentive systems, feedback, and self-monitoring are all examples of consequence-based interventions.
Which of the following is an example of an antecedent-based intervention?
Task clarification
• Task clarification is an example of an antecedent-based intervention.
Which of the following is an example of a consequence-based intervention?
Incentive system
• Incentive systems are an example of a consequence-based intervention.
Examples of Antecedent-based Interventions.
Task clarification, reducing task effort, and checklists are all examples of antecedent-based interventions.
Which of the following measures is best for evaluating a supervisee’s performance?
Graphic display of the supervisee’s behavior
• Graphic display is the best way to evaluate data collected on the supervisee’s performance. Surveys, self-reports, and graphic displays of the client’s performance may be good secondary measures for the supervisee, but ideally, performance data would be on the individual performing.
Effects of supervision can be evaluated with client performance and outcome achievement. Which of the following is another best method of evaluating effects of supervision? Measuring:
The supervisee’s repertoire
• Supervisee repertoire is another best practice to evaluate the effects of supervision.
Supervisory practices, such as training, feedback, and performance monitoring, all should influence supervisee performance. If supervisees are not expanding their repertoire, then that can be indicative of the low effectiveness of supervision. While client and/or stakeholder satisfaction could offer some insight into supervisory performance and effectiveness, it can be subject to other variables (e.g., interactions with center directors or other staff) and is not as direct of a measure as supervisee repertoire.
Why is it important to evaluate the effects of supervision?
To know if the training had the desired effect on the behavior
• The goal of supervision is to ensure the training provided had the desired effect on the supervisee’s behavior. Identifying reinforcers for behavior is usually related to a preference assessment rather than supervision. Having a permanent record of performance and knowing the expectations are all outcomes of supervision, but not necessarilv the goal.
How might a supervisor assess whether a supervisee is implementing intervention protocols appropriately?
Directly observe the supervisee perform the intervention and record their accuracy
• Direct observation is the best method to ensure a supervisee is implementing an intervention correctly. Stating or rewriting the steps of procedure and teaching are all different behaviors than performing the required task.
Which of the following could be a meaningful measure of the effects of supervision?
Rate of objectives or goals completed
• The rate of objectives/goals completed can be a meaningful measurement of the effects of supervision. Effort and satisfaction are constructs that cannot be observed or measured. The performance of other supervisees may not reflect the effects of supervision for another individual. A more reflective measure of supervising effects would be the rate of completed objectives/goals.
